Theory of Automatic Robot Assembly and Programming
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1 Theory of Automatic Robot Assembly and Programming
2 Theory of Automatic Robot Assembly and Programming Bartholomew o. Nnaji Professor and Director Automation and Robotics Laboratory Department of Industrial Engineering University of Massachusetts Amherst USA SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
3 First edition Springer Science+Bnsiness Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1993 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 15t edition 1993 ISBN o (USA) Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reprodudion only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries conceming reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publieation data available Nnaji, Bartholomew O., Theory of automatic robot assembly and programming/bartholomew O. Nnaji. - lst ed. p. em. Includes bibliographical referenees and index. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Robots, Industrial. 2. Robots - Programming. I. Title. TS19I.8.N '72 - de CIP 18. Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in aeeordanee with the proposed ANSIINISO Z X and ANSI Z
4 To Professor Richard]. Giglio for his courage and vision
5 Contents List of tables Acknowledgements Preface 1 Machine programming 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Problems of machine reasoning 1.3 Robot programming Explicit robot programming 1.4 Machine task-level programming 1.5 Organization of this book 2 CAD in automatic machine programming 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Desired CAD data 2.3 Feature, feature classification and representation Feature concept The Euler formula for features Feature classification Feature representation Feature representation for mechanical components 2.4 Feature reasoning for mechanical components Notations and definitions in feature reasoning Envelope determination Coordinate frame mapping Extraction of form features Feature recognition Criteria used for feature recognition Generic feature primitives Pattern matching Feature decomposition 3 Spatial relationships 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Background Importance of a solid modeler in spatial reasoning Spatial relationships developments xiii xv xvii II
6 viii Contents Mathematical representation Expressions for positions of bodies in terms of relations between features Features and spatial relationships Spatial relationships Assembly locations Types of spatial relationship Degrees of freedom Intersection of degrees of freedom Inferring mating frames Product specification attributes Applications Bill of materials and precedence constraints Feasible approach directions World modeling 66 4 Structure of an automatic robot programmer 4.1 Introduction 4.2 An overview of RALPH 4.3 World knowledge database 4.4 RALPH commands Task-level commands Mid-level internal commands General robot-level commands 4.5 Mathematical consideration 4.6 Task planner The task-level planner The mid-level planner 4.7 An example of assembly task 4.8 Programming issues 4.9 Discussion Sensors and representation 5.1 Background Tactile sensors Force sensors Proximity sensors Ultrasonic ranging Infrared Vision 5.2 Internal and external sensors Internal sensors External sensors 5.3 Sensor fusion 5.4 Sensor architecture
7 Contents General sensor level Generic sensor level Non-contact sensors Contact sensors Internal sensors Specific sensor level 5.5 Representation Planning General sensor planner Generic sensor planner 5.6 Probability of sensor usage Generic plan Specific sensor planner Sensor range Set considerations Individual sensor properties Gripper considerations 5.7 Processing Specific level processor Generic level processor General level processor Summary ix W orid modeling and task specification 6.1 World modeling Geometric description Parametric world modeler Physical description Kinematics of linkages Description of the robot characteristics Complexity of the world model Task specification Assembly stability model Quantitative approach to analyzing stability Description of the two-block system Equations of motion of the two-block system Simulation of the two-block assembly Equivalent parameters for transformation of a multi-body system to a single body Designing for stability Singularity and stability Inertial effects and non-linearities Generalized centroid Relative stability Summary 150
8 x Contents 7 Gross motion planning and collision avoidance Introduction Gross motion in RALPH Robot motion planning problems Findspace and findpath problems The findspace problem The find path problem Compliant motion with uncertainty Configuration space Definition Computation of the configuration space obstacles Advantages and disadvantages of C-space Path planning algorithms Visibility graph Hypothesize and test Voronoi diagram Cell decomposition Potential field The path planning algorithm Outline of collision repelling algorithm Creating the configuration space Finding the position of the axis Intersecting link j with the obstacles Updating the bitmap Finding the path for the arm Creating the retracted free C-space Creating the numerical potential field in ctee Effects of varying ( Moving the end-effector Fixed arm configuration Adjusting the hand configuration Discussion Evaluation of the proposed algorithm Proposed improvements Trajectory planning Summary Grasp planning Introduction Background General model of grasping Approaches to parallel jaw grasping Choosing grasps and grasp parameters Building integrated systems World spatial relationships in grasping Grasping concepts 181
9 Contents xi Task requirement Basic task attributes Suitable task description Feature reasoning for grasping Geometric constraints in grasping Parallelity and exterior grasp condition Local accessibility Mutual visibility Finding the grasp point and approach direction Grasp force and grasp evaluation Analysis for a rigid gripper jaw surface Analysis for a soft contact Design and implementation Task requirement Manipulability Torquability Rotatability Stability Format for task description Feature reasoning Geometrical constraints An example Summary Trajectory planning and control 9.1 Introduction Cartesian space control Joint space control Joint interpolated control 9.2 Evaluation of trajectories 9.3 Other trajectory evaluation approaches 9.4 Background material 9.5 Robots with more than 3 degrees of freedom 9.6 Evaluation and analysis Discussion 9.7 Summary Considerations for generic kinematic structures 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Kinematic structures Inverse kinematic solution Jacobian Degeneracy Singularity An example Quartenion representation of rotations
10 xii Contents 10.3 Kinematic implementation Kinematic analysis Example Link parameters for cylindrical robots Inverse kinematics results Singular points for RPP (cylindrical) robots Pattern of kinematic behavior Summary Program synthesis and other planners Introduction Spanning vector for assembly directions and other applications Determining control faces Finding mating faces Spanning vector Mathematical background Algorithm for finding spanning vector Representation of spanning vector Some examples of spanning vector Precedence generation Concept of assembly precedence Assumptions for precedence Spatial relationships and precedence Find all mating faces Determining the disassembly direction Precedence algorithm Interpretation of results Fine motion planning Program synthesis 290 References 292 Index 300
11 List of tables 1.1 Prominent robot languages Notation of symbols The structure of RALPH task-level commands Table of varieties of noncontact sensors Table of varieties of contact sensors Table of ranked generic sensor combinations Table of coordinate frames for generic sensor types Typical values for the parameters used in the dynamic simulation of the two-block system The joint categories for four robot body types Task attributes for various tasks; on a scale of 0 to 2, where 0 means no requirement and 2 means strong requirement Task attributes for mid level commands Weightage of factors influencing manipulability Weightage of factors influencing torquability Weightage of factors influencing rotatability Weightage of factors influencing stability Link parameters for the GE-A4 robot 238
12 Acknowledgements I wish to thank my students at the Automation and Robotics Laboratory both past and present who worked with me on a number of research projects which resulted in the development of various chapters of this book. In particular, I thank Dr Tzong-Shyan Kang and Dr Jang-Ping Chen for working with me on the Feature Reasoning project; Shuchieh Yeh and Mehran Kamran (CAD Data and Symmetry project); Hsu-Chang Liu (Product Modeling project); Ashok Vishnu (Stability project); Aditi Dubey (Grasp Planner project); Jagtap Prashant (Precedence Generation project); Ellen Lin (Sensor Representation project); Sven Haberer (Gross motion planning project); and Andy Rist (Simulator project). Many of our laboratory staff members helped to proof-read and comment on the book. In particular, I thank Mehran Kamran, Jyh-Haw Kang, Hsu-Chang Liu, and Shuchieh Yeh for providing this kind of needed support. Finally, I wish to give special thanks to my family for their patience for all those hours I had to spend away from them developing the material for this manuscript. I appreciate their support. This material is based partially upon research supported by the National Science Foundation, under grant number DMC and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. B.O. Nnaji
13 Preface Machines will gradually become programmed using computers which have the knowledge of how the objects in the world relate to one another. This book capitalizes on the fact that products which are manufactured can be designed on the computer and that information about the product such as its physical shape provide powerful information to reason about how to develop the process plan for their manufacture. This book explores the whole aspect of using the principles of how parts behave naturally to automatically generate programs that govern how to produce them. The last decade saw tremendous work on how machines can be programmed to perform a variety of tasks automatically. Robotics has witnessed the most work on programming techniques. But it was not until the emergence of the advanced CAD system as a proper source of information representation about objects which are to be manipulated by the robot that it became viable for automated processors to generate robot programs without human interface. It became possible for objects to be described and for principles about how they interact in the world to be developed. The functions which the features designed into the objects serve for the objects can be adequately represented and used in reasoning about the manufacturing of the parts using the robot. This book describes the necessary principles which must be developed for a robot to generate its own programs with the knowledge of the world in the CAD system. The reader will be taken through the basic theory of automatic robot programming; and representation of product information in a CAD system suitable for making inference about the product planning. Issues of how a task is represented to the machine are addressed in detail including spatial relationships and bill of materials. This task specification is based on a more contemporary view of the CAD system. In addition, the planning at all stages of robot motion is also presented. This work represents over a decade of work in robotics and automated manufacturing. All the material presented has been tested and many of the principles are being used in many major industries in the world. This text should be suitable for advanced undergraduate and graduate students in industrial, mechanical, manufacturing, and electrical engineering, as well as computer science. The book should also be appropriate for a course on robot programming, machine programming, and robotic assembly. It can also serve as a major part of a course in robotics, or any other automated manufacturing course. Theory of Automatic Robot Assembly and Programming is also designed for practising engineers, computer scientists or managers of production function who desire to keep abreast of the technology or to use robots in their facility. The principles which govern automatic robot programming are well explained within the application area of assembly throughout the book.
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