Promoting Effective Communication

Transcription

1 Chapter 6 Promoting Effective Communication CHAPTER OUTLINE I. COMMUNICATION AND MANAGEMENT A. Communication is the sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups to reach a common understanding. 1. Communication, including that which is electronically based, is a human endeavor and involves individuals and groups. 2. Communication does not take place unless a common understanding is reached. B. The Importance of Good Communication: Because good communication is essential for obtaining efficiency, quality, and responsiveness to customers, and innovation, it is a necessity for gaining a competitive advantage. 1. Good communication is necessary so that managers can increase efficiency by learning to take advantage of new and more efficient technologies and by training workers to operate the new technologies. 2. Improving quality hinges on effective communication, since managers need to communicate to employees the importance of high quality and the ways of attaining it. a. Subordinates also need to communicate quality problems and suggestions for improving quality to their superiors. b. Likewise, self-managed teams must share their ideas for improving quality with fellow team members. 3. Good communication can help increase responsiveness to customers. a. When the organizational members who are closest to customers are empowered to communicate customer needs to managers, managers are better able to respond to these needs. b. Also, managers must communicate with other organizational members to determine how to best respond to changing customer preferences. 4. Innovation, which often takes place in cross-functional teams, also requires effective communication. 1

2 a. Team members must effectively communicate with each other to develop high quality products that customers want and the organization can produce efficiently. C. The Communication Process: The communication process consists of two phases. 1. In the transmission phase, information is shared between two or more individuals or groups. 2. In the feedback phase, a common understanding is reached. 3. To start the transmission state, the sender, the person or group wishing to share information with some other person, decides on the message, and what information to communicate. 4. The sender translates the message into symbols or language, a process called encoding. 5. Noise refers to anything that hampers any stage of the communication process. 6. Once encoded, a message is transmitted through a medium to the receiver, the person or group for which the message is intended. 7. A medium is the pathway through which a message is transmitted to a receiver. 8. At the next stage, the receiver interprets and tries to make sense of the message, a process called decoding. 9. The feedback phase is begun when the receiver decides what message to send to the original sender, encodes it, and transmits it. 10. The original sender decodes the message and makes sure that a common understanding has been reached. a. If a common understanding has not been reached, the sender and receiver repeat this process as times as needed to reach a common understanding. 11. The encoding of messages into words, written or spoken, is verbal communication. 12. Nonverbal communication shares information by means of facial expressions, body language, and even style of dress. a. Nonverbal communication can be used to reinforce verbal communication. b. People tend to have less control over nonverbal communication and can inadvertently send a message they did not intend to. c. Sometimes nonverbal communication is used to send messages that cannot be sent through verbal channels. D. The Role of Perception in Communication: Perception plays a central role in communication and affects both transmission and feedback. 1. When senders and receivers communicate with each other, they are doing so based upon their own subjective perceptions. 2

3 2. The encoding and decoding of messages and the choice of a medium hinge on the perceptions of senders and receivers. 3. Perceptual biases can hamper effective communication. a. For example, stereotypes can interfere with the encoding and decoding of messages. E. The Dangers of Ineffective Communication: Because managers must communicate with others to perform their various roles and tasks, they devote a lot of time to this activity. 1. Managers also must help their subordinates become effective communicators. a. When all members of an organization are able to communicate effectively, the organization is more likely to perform highly. 2. When managers are ineffective communicators, organizational performance suffers, and any competitive advantage is likely to be lost. a. Poor communication can even cause danger and lead to loss of human life. II. INFORMATION RICHNESS AND COMMUNICATION MEDIA A. To be effective communicators, managers need to select an appropriate communication medium for each message they send. 1. There is no one best communication medium for managers to rely upon. 2. When choosing a communication medium, managers should consider three factors. a. The most important consideration is the level of information richness that is needed. Information richness is the amount of information a communication medium can carry and the extent to which the medium enables the sender and receiver to reach a common understanding. b. Media high in information richness are able to carry a lot of information. c. The second factor is the amount of time needed for communication. d. The third factor is the need for a paper or electronic trail to serve as evidence that a document was sent or received. B. Face-to-Face Communication: Face-to-face communication is the medium that is highest in information richness. 1. When managers communicate face-to-face, they take advantage of verbal communication, interpret each other s nonverbal signals, and receive instant feedback. 2. Management by wandering around is a face-to-face communication technique that many managers find effective at all levels in an organization. 3

4 a. Managers walk around work areas and talk informally with employees about the issues and concerns of each. b. These informal conversations provide managers with important information and foster the development of positive relationships. 3. Face-to-face communication should not always be the medium of choice for managers because of the large amount of time it consumes and the lack of a paper or electronic trail. a. For messages that are important, personal, or likely to be misunderstood, managers should use face-to-face communication and supplement it with some form of written communication. 4. Many organizations are using videoconferences to allow for face-to-face communication while also saving time and money. a. Videoconferencing allows managers in two or more locations to communicate with each other over video screens. b. Videoconferencing sometimes leads to shorter, more efficient meetings. C. Spoken Communication Electronically Transmitted: After face-to-face communication, spoken communication electronically transmitted over phone lines is second highest in information richness. 1. Although telephone communication does not allow access to body language and facial expressions, managers are able to pay attention to the tone of voice, the parts of the message that the sender emphasizes, and the actual words spoken. 2. Managers also can get quick feedback over the telephone and answer questions, thereby ensuring that a mutual understanding is reached. 3. Voice mail systems also allow managers to send and receive verbal electronic messages. a. Such systems are a necessity when managers are away from their desks or out of the office. D. Personally Addressed Written Communication: Although lower in information richness, personally addressed written communication such as memos or letters has the advantage of demanding attention, as does faceto-face communication and verbal communication electronically submitted. 1. Because personally addressed written communication is addressed to a specific person, there is a good chance that the person will open and read it. a. Also, the sender can write the message in a way that the receiver is most likely to understand. 2. Like voice mail, written communication does not enable a receiver to have his or her questions answered immediately. 3. Even if managers use face-to-face communication, a follow-up in writing is often needed. 4

5 4. also fits into this category because senders and receivers are communicating through personally addressed written words. It is important to follow etiquette. 5. has enabled many workers and managers to become telecommuters. a. Telecommuters are people who are employed by organizations and work out of offices in their own homes. i. Many telecommuters say the flexibility of telecommuting enables them to be more productive while giving them a chance to be closer to their families. 6. The widespread use of has been accompanied by its growing abuse. a. To avoid abuse, managers need to develop a clear policy specifying what company should be used for and what is out of bounds. b. Managers also should clearly communicate this policy to all members of an organization. c. Employees should also be informed of procedures that will be used when abuse is suspected and the consequences that will result when abuse is confirmed. 7. According to the American Management Association, while the majority of organizations have a written policy concerning use, most do not have written guidelines for instant messaging. 8. According to a study conducted by Websense, approximately half of the employees surveyed indicated that they surfed the web at work for purposes unrelated to their job, averaging about two hours per week. a. The majority of those surveyed felt that personal and web surfing had no impact upon their productivity and 27% thought that it improved their productivity. b. Other statistics suggest that while Internet usage is greater at home than at work, those using the Internet at work spend more time on it and visit more sites. E. Impersonal Written Communication: Impersonal written communication is lowest in information richness and is suited for messages that need to reach a large number of receivers. 1. Feedback is unlikely, so managers must make sure that messages are written clearly in language that all receivers will understand. 2. Managers often find company newsletters to be useful vehicles for reaching large number of employees. 3. Managers can use impersonal written communication to send various types of messages, including rules, regulations, and policies, newsworthy information, the arrival of new organizational members, how to use machinery, and how to process work orders or customer requests. 5

6 4. The paper trail left by this communication medium can be invaluable. Also, impersonal written communication can be delivered and retrieved electronically. 5. Unfortunately, the ease with which electronic messages can be spread has led to their proliferation, and electronic mailboxes of organizational members are often backlogged. 6. The problem with such information overload is the possibility that important information will be overlooked and productivity will be lost due to time wasted on tangential information. III. COMMUNICATION NETWORKS A. Although various communication media are utilized, communication in organizations tends to flow in certain patterns. B. Communication networks are the pathways along which information flows in groups and teams and throughout the organization. C. The type of communication network in place depends on the nature of the group s tasks and the extent to which group members need to communicate with each other. D. Communication Networks in Groups and Teams 1. Four kinds of communication networks can develop in groups and teams: the wheel, the chain, the circle, and the all-channel network. 2. Wheel Network : In a wheel network, information flows to and from one central member of the group. a. The other group members do not need to communicate with each other to perform highly, and the group can accomplish its goals be directing all communication to and from the central member. b. Wheel networks are found in command groups with pooled task interdependence. c. These networks are not found in teams because they do not allow for intense interactions. d. Chain Network: In a chain network, members communicate with each other in a predetermined sequence. e. Chain networks are found in groups with sequential task interdependence, such as assembly-line groups. f. Chain networks tend not to exist in teams due to the limited amount of interaction it provides among team members. 6

7 3. Circle Network: In a circle network, group members communicate with others who are similar to them in experience, beliefs, areas of expertise, background, or office location. a. Circle networks are most often found in groups that are not teams. 4. All-Channel Network: An all-channel network is found in teams. a. High levels of communication characterize this type of network in which every team member communicates with every other team member. b. Top-management teams, cross-functional teams, and self-managed work teams frequently have all-channel networks. E. Organizational Communication Networks: An organization chart summarizes formal reporting relationships in an organization and the formal pathways along which communication takes place. 1. Often, communication is informal and flows around issues and ideas instead of moving up and down the organizational hierarchy. a. Thus, an organization s communication network includes formal and informal communication pathways. 2. Communication can occur across departments and groups as well as within them. It can also occur up, down, and sideways in the corporate hierarchy. a. Communication up and down the corporate hierarchy is often called vertical communication. b. Communication among employees at the same level in the hierarchy or sideways is called horizontal communication. 3. To accomplish goals and perform at a high level, organizational members should be free to communicate with whomever they need to contact. 4. Informal communication networks can contribute to an organization s competitive advantage because they help ensure that organizational members have the information they need. a. The grapevine is an informal network along which unofficial information flows quickly, although perhaps inaccurately. F. External Networks: In addition to networks within an organization, managers often have external networks consisting of work-related ties with professionals employed outside of their organization. 1. For some managers and professionals, participation in these interestoriented networks is just as important, if not more important, than internal company networks. 2. Networks of contacts who are working in the same discipline or with similar expertise can be very helpful. 7

8 IV. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION A. Advances in information technology are dramatically increasing the ability of managers to communicate with others and quickly access information needed to make decisions. B. Three advances that are having major impacts on managerial communication are the Internet, intranets, and groupware. C. The Internet 1. The Internet is a global system of computer networks that is used by organizations around the world to communicate both inside and outside of their company. a. Over 160 million people in the U.S. use it. 2. The World Wide Web is the business district on the Internet with multimedia capabilities. a. By surfing the Web and visiting competitors home pages, managers can see what their competitors are doing. 3. Although use of the Internet for communication is burgeoning, some managers and organizations do not conduct certain business transactions over the Internet because of security concerns. a. However perfect security can never be obtained with any form of communication, and good security over the Internet is certainly possible. D. Intranets: Intranets use the technology of the Internet to create networks to share information within companies. 1. They allow employees to have many kinds of information at their fingertips and can be accessed with different kinds of computers, so that all members of an organization can be linked together. 2. They are protected from unwanted intrusions with firewall security systems that request users to provide passwords. 3. The advantage of intranets lies in their versatility as a communication medium. E. Groupware and Collaboration Software: Groupware is computer software that enables members of groups and teams to share information with each other to improve their communication and performance. 1. Even in companies where the introduction of groupware has been successful, some employees resist using it. 2. Use of groupware is most likely to be successful when the following conditions are present: a. The work is group or team based, and members are rewarded, at least in part, for group performance. b. Groupware has the full support of top management. 8

9 c. The culture of the organization stresses flexibility and knowledge sharing and the organization does not have a rigid hierarchy of authority. d. Groupware is being used for a specific purpose and is viewed as a tool for group or team members to use to work more effectively together, not as a personal source of power or advantage. e. Employees receive adequate training in the use of both computers and groupware. 3. Employees are likely to resist using groupware when people are working primarily on their own and are rewarded for their own performance. 4. In order for an organization to gain a competitive advantage, managers need to remain up-to-date on advances in information technology. a. However, managers should not adopt new advances without first carefully considering how it might impact communication and performance. 5. Collaboration software is groupware that aims to promote collaborative, highly interdependent interactions among members of a team and provide the team with an electronic meeting site for communication. a. By providing an integrated online work area, collaboration software can help to organize and centralize the work of a tem, help ensure that information is readily available, and users know which other team members are also online and at the site. V. COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR MANAGERS A. When messages are unclear, incomplete, or difficult to understand, when they are sent over an inappropriate medium, or when no provision for feedback is made, communication suffers. B. Some barriers have their origins in senders, such as messages that are unclear or difficult to understand. 1. Other barriers have their origins in receivers, such as when receivers pay no attention or do not listen to messages. 2. Sometimes advanced information technology such as automated phone systems can hamper effective communication to the extent that the human element is missing. 3. To overcome these barriers, managers must possess or develop certain communication skills. a. These skills help ensure that managers will be able to share information, will have the information they need to make good decisions and take action, and will be able to reach a common understanding with others. 9

10 C. Communication Skills for Managers as Senders 1. Send Clear and Complete Messages: A message is clear when it is easy for the receiver to understand and interpret. a. It is complete when it contains all the information that the sender and receiver need to reach a common understanding. b. Managers must learn to anticipate how receivers will interpret messages and then adjust them to eliminate misunderstanding. 2. Encode Messages in Symbols the Receiver Understands: When managers encode messages, they should use symbols or language that the receiver understands. a. Jargon is specialized language that members of an occupation, group, or organization develop to facilitate communication among themselves. b. It should never be used to communicate with people outside of the occupation or organization. 3. Select a Medium Appropriate for the Message: When choosing from the variety of communication media that exists, managers need to take into account the level of information richness required, time constraints, and the nature of the message. a. A primary concern is the nature of the message. 4. Select a Medium That the Receiver Monitors. Many managers select the medium that they use the most instead of the medium that the receiver uses the most. a. This can often lead to ineffective communication. b. A related consideration is whether receivers have disabilities that limit their ability to decode certain kinds of messages. 5. Avoid Filtering and Information Distortion: Filtering occurs when senders withhold part of a message because they think that the receiver does not need the information or will not want to receive it. a. Filtering can occur at all levels in an organization and in both vertical and horizontal communication. b. Information distortion occurs when the meaning of a message changes as the message passes through a series of senders and receivers. i. Some information distortion is accidental. ii. Other information distortion is deliberate when senders alter a message to make themselves look good. iii. Managers should avoid filtering and distorting information by establishing trust throughout the organization. 10

11 6. Include a Feedback Mechanism in Messages: Managers should build a feedback mechanism into the messages they send. a. By building feedback mechanisms into their messages, managers ensure that they are heard and understood. 7. Provide Accurate Information: Rumors are unofficial pieces of information of interest to organizational members with no identifiable source. a. They spread quickly, are often misleading, and can cause harm to individual employees and to an organization when they are false, malicious, or unfounded. b. Managers can halt the spread of misleading rumors by providing accurate information. D. Communication Skills for Managers as Receivers 1. Pay Attention: Although often overloaded and extremely busy, managers should always pay attention to messages they receive. 2. Be a Good Listener: Managers should refrain from interrupting senders in the middle of a message and maintain good eye contact so that senders feel their listeners are paying attention. a. After receiving a message, managers should ask questions to clarify points of ambiguity and paraphrase those points made by the sender that are important or are open to alternative interpretations. 3. Be Empathetic: Receivers are empathetic when they try to understand how the sender feels and try to interpret a message from the sender s perspective. E. Understanding Linguistic Styles: A misunderstanding of linguistic styles can lead to a breakdown in communication. 1. Linguistic style is a person s characteristic way of speaking, including tone of voice, speed, volume, use of pauses, and other manners of speech. 2. When people s linguistic styles differ, ineffective communication is likely. 3. Differences in linguistic style can be an insidious source of communication problems because linguistic style is often taken for granted. F. Cross-Cultural Differences 1. Managers from Japan tend to be more formal and more deferential toward upper-level managers than managers in the U.S. a. Also, they do not mind long pauses in the conversation, which many U.S. managers find disconcerting. 2. Another difference in linguistic style concerns the appropriate physical distance separating speakers and listeners. 11

12 3. Japanese culture tends to encourage linguistic styles in which group rather than individual accomplishments are emphasized. 4. These differences in linguistic style can lead to misunderstandings. a. However, such misunderstandings can be overcome if managers make themselves familiar with cross-cultural differences in linguistic styles. 5. Gender Differences: Research has found that the linguistic styles of men and women differ in every culture and language. a. Men and women take their own styles for granted and do not realize when differences in style lead to ineffective communication. b. In the United States, women tend to downplay differences between people and want to make everyone feel more or less on an equal footing. c. Men, in contrast, tend to emphasize their own superiority and are not reluctant to acknowledge differences in status. d. Gender differences in linguistic styles are general tendencies and therefore do not exist in all women and men. e. These differences develop in early childhood. f. They are also evident in the ways that women and men use and electronic forms of communication. G. Managing Differences in Linguistic Style: Managers should not expect to change people s linguistic styles or try to. 1. Instead, managers need to understand differences in linguistic styles. 12