Distributed Systems. Chapman & Hall/CRC. «H Taylor S* Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York

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1 Distributed Systems An Algorithmic Approach Sukumar Ghosh University of Iowa Iowa City, U.S.A. Chapman & Hall/CRC «H Taylor S* Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York Chapman & Hall/CRC is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Table of Contents Part A Background Materials 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 3 1.1 What Is a Distributed System? 3 1.2 Why Distributed Systems? 3 1.3 Examples of Distributed Systems 4 1.

2 Table of Contents Part A Background Materials 1 Chapter 1 Introduction What Is a Distributed System? Why Distributed Systems? Examples of Distributed Systems Important Issues in Distributed Systems Common Subproblems Implementing a Distributed System Parallel vs. Distributed Systems Bibliographic Notes 10 Chapter 2 Interprocess Communication: An Overview Introduction Processes and Threads Client-Server Model Middleware Network Protocols The Ethernet Wireless Networks The OSI Model Internet Protocol Transport Layer Protocols Interprocess Communication Using Sockets Naming Domain Name Service Naming Service for Mobile Clients Remote Procedure Call Implementing RPC SUN RPC Remote Method Invocation Web Services Messages Transient and Persistent Messages Streams Event Notification CORBA Mobile Agents 31

2.11 Basic Group Communication Services 32 2.12 Concluding Remarks 32 2.13 Bibliographie Notes 32 2.14 Exercises 33 Part В Foundational Topics 35 Chapter 3 Models of Communication 37 3.

3 2.11 Basic Group Communication Services Concluding Remarks Bibliographie Notes Exercises 33 Part В Foundational Topics 35 Chapter 3 Models of Communication The Need for a Model A Message-Passing Model for Interprocess Communication Process Actions Channels Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Systems Shared Variables Linda Modeling Mobile Agents Relationship among Models Strong and Weak Models Implementing a FIFO Channel Using a Non-FIFO Channel Implementing Message Passing on Shared Memory Implementing Shared Memory Using Message Passing An Impossibility Result with Channels Classification Based on Special Properties Reactive vs. Transformational Systems Named vs. Anonymous Systems Complexity Measures Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 51 Chapter 4 Representing Distributed Algorithms: Syntax and Semantics Introduction Guarded Actions Nondeterminism Atomic Operations Fairness Unconditionally Fair Scheduler Weakly Fair Scheduler Strongly Fair Scheduler Central vs. Distributed Schedulers Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 65 Chapter 5 Program Correctness Introduction Correctness Criteria Safety Properties Liveness Properties 71

5.3 Correctness Proofs 74 5.4 Predicate Logic 74 5.4.1 A Review of Prepositional Logic 74 5.4.2 Brief Overview of Predicate Logic 75 5.5 Assertional Reasoning: Proving Safety Properties 76 5.

4 5.3 Correctness Proofs Predicate Logic A Review of Prepositional Logic Brief Overview of Predicate Logic Assertional Reasoning: Proving Safety Properties Proving Liveness Properties Using Well-Founded Sets Programming Logic Predicate Transformers Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 84 Chapter 6 Time in a Distributed System Introduction The Physical Time Sequential and Concurrent Events Logical Clocks Vector Clocks Physical Clock Synchronization Preliminary Definitions Clock Reading Error Algorithms for Internal Synchronization Algorithms for External Synchronization Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 100 PartC Important Paradigms 103 Chapter 7 Mutual Exclusion Introduction Solutions Using Message Passing Lamport's Solution Ricart-Agrawala's Solution Maekawa's Solution Token Passing Algorithms Suzuki-Kasami Algorithm Raymond's Algorithm Solutions on the Shared-Memory Model Peterson's Algorithm Mutual Exclusion Using Special Instructions Solution Using Test-and-Set Solution Using Load-Linked and Store-Conditional The Group Mutual Exclusion Problem A Centralized Solution Decentralized Solution on the Shared-Memory Model Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 121

Chapter 8 Distributed Snapshot 127 8.1 Introduction 127 8.2 Properties of Consistent Snapshots 128 8.3 The Chandy-Lamport Algorithm 129 8.3.1 Two Examples 131 8.4 The Lai-Yang Algorithm 133 8.

5 Chapter 8 Distributed Snapshot Introduction Properties of Consistent Snapshots The Chandy-Lamport Algorithm Two Examples The Lai-Yang Algorithm Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 134 Chapter 9 Global State Collection Introduction An Elementary Algorithm for Broadcasting Termination Detection Algorithm The Dijkstra-Scholten Algorithm Termination Detection on a Unidirectional Ring Distributed Deadlock Detection Detection of Resource Deadlock Detection of Communication Deadlock Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 149 Chapter 10 Graph Algorithms Introduction Routing Algorithms Computation of Shortest Path Distance Vector Routing Link-State Routing Interval Routing Graph Traversal Spanning Tree Construction Tarry's Graph Traversal Algorithm Minimum Spanning Tree Graph Coloring A Simple Coloring Algorithm Planar Graph Coloring Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 170 Chapter 11 Coordination Algorithms Introduction Leader Election The Bully Algorithm Maxima Finding on a Ring Chang-Roberts Algorithm Franklin's Algorithm Peterson's Algorithm 177

11.2.3 Election in Arbitrary Networks 179 11.2.4 Election in Anonymous Networks 179 11.3 Synchronizers 180 11.3.1 The ABD Synchronizer 180 11.3.2 Awerbuch's Synchronizer 181 11.3.2.1 The a-synchronizer 181 11.

6 Election in Arbitrary Networks Election in Anonymous Networks Synchronizers The ABD Synchronizer Awerbuch's Synchronizer The a-synchronizer The /S-Synchronizer The у -Synchronizer Performance of Synchronizers Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 186 PartD Faults and Fault-Tolerant Systems 189 Chapter 12 Fault-Tolerant Systems Introduction Classification of Faults Specification of Faults Fault-Tolerant Systems Masking Tolerance NonMasking Tolerance Fail-Safe Tolerance Graceful Degradation Detection of Failures Tolerating Crash Failures Triple Modular Redundancy Tolerating Omission Failures The Sliding Window Protocol The Alternating Bit Protocol HowTCPWorks Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 205 Chapter 13 Distributed Consensus Introduction Consensus in Asynchronous Systems Consensus on Synchronous Systems: Byzantine Generals Problem The Solution with No Traitor Solution with Traitors: Interactive Consistency Requirements Consensus with Oral Messages An Impossibility Result The OM(m) Algorithm Consensus Using Signed Messages Failure Detectors Solving Consensus Using Failure Detectors 222

13.4.1.1 Consensus with P 223 13.4.1.2 Consensus Using S 223 13.5 Concluding Remarks 224 13.6 Bibliographic Notes 225 13.7 Exercises 225 Chapter 14 Distributed Transactions 227 14.

7 Consensus with P Consensus Using S Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 225 Chapter 14 Distributed Transactions Introduction Classification of Transactions Implementing Transactions Concurrency Control and Serializability Testing for Serializability Two-Phase Locking Timestamp Ordering Atomic Commit Protocols One-Phase Commit Two-Phase Commit Non-Blocking Atomic Commit Recovery from Failures Stable Storage Checkpointing and Rollback Recovery Message Logging Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 239 Chapter 15 Group Communication Introduction Atomic Multicast IP Multicast Application Layer Multicast Ordered Multicasts Implementing Total Order Multicast Implementing Causal Order Multicast Reliable Ordered Multicast The Requirements of Reliable Multicast Scalable Reliable Multicast Open Groups View-Synchronous Group Communication An Overview of Transis Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 256 Chapter 16 Replicated Data Management Introduction Reliability vs. Availability Architecture of Replicated Data Management 264

16.2.1 Passive vs. Active Replication 264 16.2.2 Fault-Tolerant State Machines 266 16.3 Data-Centric Consistency Models 267 16.3.1 Strict Consistency 267 16.3.2 Linearizability 268 16.3.3 Sequential Consistency 269 16.

8 Passive vs. Active Replication Fault-Tolerant State Machines Data-Centric Consistency Models Strict Consistency Linearizability Sequential Consistency Causal Consistency Client-Centric Consistency Protocols Eventual Consistency Consistency Models for Mobile Clients Implementation of Data-Centric Consistency Models Quorum-Based Protocols Replica Placement Case Studies Replication Management in Coda Replication Management in Bayou Gossip Architecture Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 278 Chapter 17 Self-Stabilizing Systems Introduction Theoretical Foundations Stabilizing Mutual Exclusion Mutual Exclusion on a Unidirectional Ring Mutual Exclusion on a Bidirectional Array Stabilizing Graph Coloring Stabilizing Spanning Tree Protocol Distributed Reset Stabilizing Clock Synchronization Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 296 PartE Real World Issues 301 Chapter 18 Distributed Discrete-Event Simulation Introduction Event-Driven Simulation Distributed Simulation The Challenges Correctness Issues Conservative Simulation Optimistic Simulation and Time Warp Global Virtual Time Concluding Remarks 310

18.6 Bibliographie Notes 310 18.7 Exercises 310 Chapter 19 Security in Distributed Systems 313 19.1 Introduction 313 19.2 Security Mechanisms 314 19.3 Common Security Attacks 314 19.

9 18.6 Bibliographie Notes Exercises 310 Chapter 19 Security in Distributed Systems Introduction Security Mechanisms Common Security Attacks Encryption Secret-Key Cryptosystem Confusion and Diffusion DES DES AES One-Time Pad Stream Ciphers Steganography Public-Key Cryptosystems The Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) Method ElGamal Cryptosystem Digital Signatures Signatures in Secret-Key Cryptosystems Signatures in Public-Key Cryptosystems Hashing Algorithms Birthday Attack Elliptic Curve Cryptography Authentication Server Authentication Server for Secret-Key Cryptosystems Authentication Server for Public-Key Cryptosystems Digital Certificates Case Studies Kerberos Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) Secure Socket Layer (SSL) Virtual Private Networks (VPN) and Firewalls VPN Firewall Sharing a Secret Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 334 Chapter 20 Sensor Networks The Vision Architecture of a Sensor Node MICA Mote ZigBee Enabled Sensor Nodes TinyOS Operating System The Challenges in Wireless Sensor Networks Energy Conservation 345

20.3.2 Fault-Tolerance 346 20.3.3 Routing 346 20.3.4 Time Synchronization 346 20.3.5 Location Management 346 20.3.6 Middleware Design 346 20.3.7 Security 346 20.4 Routing Algorithms 347 20.4.1 Directed Diffusion 347 20.

10 Fault-Tolerance Routing Time Synchronization Location Management Middleware Design Security Routing Algorithms Directed Diffusion Cluster-Based Routing LEACH PEGASIS Meta-Data Based Routing: SPIN Time Synchronization Using Reference Broadcast Reference Broadcast Localization Algorithms RSSI Based Ranging Ranging Using Time Difference of Arrival Anchor-Based Ranging Security in Sensor Networks SPIN for Data Security An Overview of SNEP An Overview of AITESLA Attacks on Routing Sample Application: Pursuer-Evader Games Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes Exercises 358 Chapter 21 Peer-to-Peer Networks Introduction The First-Generation P2P Systems Napster Gnutella The Second-Generation P2P Systems KaZaA Chord Content Addressable Network (CAN) Pastry Koorde and De Bruijn Graph The Small-World Phenomenon Skip Graph Replication Management Free Riders and Bittorrent Censorship Resistance, Anonymity, and Ethical Issues Concluding Remarks Bibliographic Notes 378 Bibliography 383 Index 393

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS. Second Edition. Andrew S. Tanenbaum Maarten Van Steen. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 7'he Netherlands PEARSON.

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS. Second Edition. Andrew S. Tanenbaum Maarten Van Steen. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 7'he Netherlands PEARSON. DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS 121r itac itple TAYAdiets Second Edition Andrew S. Tanenbaum Maarten Van Steen Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 7'he Netherlands PEARSON Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 CONTENTS