Computer Network Fundamentals Spring Week 4 Network Layer Andreas Terzis
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1 Computer Network Fundamentals Spring 2008 Week 4 Network Layer Andreas Terzis
2 Outline Internet Protocol Service Model Addressing Original addressing scheme Subnetting CIDR Fragmentation ICMP Address Shortage NAT IPv6 CS 344/Spring08 2
3 IP Internet Concatenation of Networks Three requirements Connectivity Addressing Path discovery CS 344/Spring08 3
4 Service Model Connectionless (datagrambased) Best-effort delivery (unreliable service) Packets are lost Packets are delivered out of order Duplicate copies of a packet are delivered Packets can be delayed for a long time App Transport Network Link TCP / UDP IP Data Data Hdr TCP Segment Hdr IP Datagram CS 344/Spring08 4
5 IP Header CS 344/Spring08 5
6 Global Addresses Properties globally unique hierarchical network + host Address classes Dot Notation CS 344/Spring08 6
7 Address Allocation Who manages the IP address space? Hierarchical system Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) Local Internet Registries (LIRs) ISPs ARIN, APNIC, etc CS 344/Spring08 7
8 Datagram Forwarding (v.1) Strategy every datagram contains destination s address if connected to destination network, then forward to host if not directly connected, then forward to some router forwarding table maps network number into next hop Example (R2) Net Number Next Hop 1 R3 2 R1 3 4 interface 1 interface 0 CS 344/Spring08 8
9 IP Addressing Problem: Address classes were too rigid. Organizations with internal routers needed to have a separate (Class C) network ID for each link. And then every other router in the Internet had to know about every network ID in every organization, which led to large address tables. Small organizations wanted Class B in case they grew to more than 255 hosts. But there were only about 16,000 Class B network IDs. CS 344/Spring08 9
10 IP Addressing Two solutions were introduced: Subnetting is used within an organization to subdivide the organization s network ID. Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) CS 344/Spring08 10
11 Subnetting Add another level to address/routing hierarchy: subnet Subnet masks define variable partition of host part Subnets visible only within site CS 344/Spring08 11
12 Subnet Example Forwarding table at router R1 Subnet Number Subnet Mask Next Hop interface interface R2 CS 344/Spring08 12
13 Forwarding Algorithm (v.2) D = destination IP address for each entry (SubnetNum, SubnetMask, NextHop) D1 = SubnetMask & D if D1 == SubnetNum if NextHop is an interface deliver datagram directly to D else deliver datagram to NextHop Use a default router if nothing matches Subnets not visible from the rest of the Internet CS 344/Spring08 13
14 Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) The IP address space is broken into line segments. Each line segment is described by a prefix. A prefix is of the form x/y where x indicates the prefix of all addresses in the line segment, and y indicates the length of the segment. e.g. The prefix 128.9/16 represents the line segment containing addresses in the range: / / / CS 344/Spring08 14
15 Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) / / / / / Most specific route = longest matching prefix CS 344/Spring08 15
16 Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) Prefix aggregation: If a service provider serves two organizations with prefixes, it can (sometimes) aggregate them to form a larger prefix. Other routers can refer to this larger prefix, and so reduce the size of their address table. E.g. ISP serves /24 and /24, it can tell other routers to send it all packets belonging to the prefix /23. ISP Choice: In principle, an organization can keep its prefix if it changes service providers. CS 344/Spring08 16
17 Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing information: Organization /23 Organization /23 Organization /23 Organization /23. Fly-By-Night-ISP Send me anything with addresses beginning /20 Internet ISPs-R-Us Send me anything with addresses beginning /16 CS 344/Spring08 17
18 Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation Organization /23 Organization /23 Organization /23 Organization /23. Fly-By-Night-ISP Send me anything with addresses beginning /20 Internet Multi-homing ISPs-R-Us Send me anything with addresses beginning /16, /16 or /23 CS 344/Spring08 18
19 How a Router Forwards Datagrams R R2 R3 R4 e.g => Port 2 Prefix Next-hop Port 65/ / / / / / / Forwarding table CS 344/Spring08 19
20 Forwarding in an IP Router (v.3) Lookup packet DA in forwarding table. If known, forward to correct port. If unknown, drop packet. Decrement TTL, update header Checksum. Forward packet to outgoing interface. Transmit packet onto link. Question: How is the address looked up in a real router? CS 344/Spring08 20
21 Fragmentation Problem: A router may receive a packet larger than the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the outgoing link. Source Destination A B Ethernet MTU=1500 bytes MTU=1500 bytes R1 MTU<1500 bytes R2 Solution: R1 fragments the IP datagram into mutiple, self-contained datagrams. Offset>0 More Frag=0 Data HDR (ID=x) Offset=0 More Frag=1 Data HDR (ID=x) Data HDR (ID=x) Data HDR (ID=x) CS 344/Spring08 21
22 Fragmentation (II) Fragments are re-assembled by the destination host; not by intermediate routers. To avoid fragmentation, hosts commonly use path MTU discovery to find the smallest MTU along the path. Path MTU discovery involves sending various size datagrams until they do not require fragmentation along the path. Most links use MTU>=1500bytes today. Try: traceroute f and traceroute f (DF=1 set in IP header; routers send ICMP error message, which is shown as!f ). CS 344/Spring08 22
23 ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol: Used by a router/end-host to report some types of error: E.g. Destination Unreachable: packet can t be forwarded to/ towards its destination. E.g. Time Exceeded: TTL reached zero, or fragment didn t arrive in time. Traceroute uses this error to its advantage. An ICMP message is an IP datagram, and is sent back to the source of the packet that caused the error. CS 344/Spring08 23
24 IP Address Shortage Global IPv4 addresses are getting depleted Increase in number of hosts PCs, PDAs, cellphones, microwaves, etc Address inefficiencies What to do Get larger address space -> IPv6 Remove the assumption that address is globally unique Can reuse the same address multiple times -> NAT CS 344/Spring08 24
25 NAT: Network Address Translation rest of Internet local network (e.g., home network) / All datagrams leaving local network have same single source NAT IP address: , different source port numbers Datagrams with source or destination in this network have /24 address for source, destination (as usual) CS 344/Spring08 25
26 NAT: Network Address Translation 2: NAT router changes datagram source addr from , 3345 to , 5001, updates table 2 NAT translation table WAN side addr LAN side addr , , 3345 S: , 5001 D: , S: , 3345 D: , : host sends datagram to , S: , 80 D: , : Reply arrives dest. address: , 5001 S: , 80 D: , : NAT router changes datagram dest addr from , 5001 to , 3345 CS 344/Spring08 26
27 NAT implementation NAT router must: outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)... remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP address, new port #) as destination addr. remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table CS 344/Spring08 27
28 NAT Problems Problems due to NAT Increased network complexity, reduced robustness Cannot run services inside NAT (maybe) Address shortage should instead be solved by IPv6 CS 344/Spring08 28
29 IPv6 Motivation: 32-bit address space exhaustion Take the opportunity for some clean-up IPv6 datagram format: fixed-length 40 byte header Address length changed from 32 bits to 128 bits fragmentation fields moved out of base header IP options moved out of base header Header Length field eliminated Header Checksum eliminated Type of Service field eliminated Time to Live Hop Limit, Protocol Next Header Precedence Priority, added Flow Label field Length field excludes IPv6 header CS 344/Spring08 29
30 IPv6 header format Version Priority Flow Label Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit Source Address (16 bytes, 128 bits) Destination Address (16 bytes) IPv4 header CS 344/Spring08 30
31 Transition From IPv4 To IPv6 Not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously Two proposed approaches to allow the Internet operate with mixed IPv4 and IPv6 routers : Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload in IPv4 packets among IPv4 routers Dual Stack: some routers with dual stack (v6, v4) can translate between formats CS 344/Spring08 31
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