Standard Codecs. Image compression to advanced video coding. Mohammed Ghanbari. 3rd Edition. The Institution of Engineering and Technology
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1 Standard Codecs Image compression to advanced video coding 3rd Edition Mohammed Ghanbari The Institution of Engineering and Technology
2 Contents Preface to first edition Preface to second edition Preface to third edition 1 History of video coding 2 Video basics 2.1 Analoj gue video Digital video 2.3 Image References Scanning Colour components format SIF images Conversion from SIF to CCIR-601 format CIF image format Sub-QCIF, QSIF, QCIF HDTV Conversion from film Temporal resampling Picture quality assessment Problems xix xxi xxii Principles of video compression Spatial redundancy reduction Predictive coding Transform coding Mismatch control Fast DCT transform Quantisation of DCT coefficients Temporal redundancy reduction Motion estimation Fast motion estimation Hierarchical motion estimation Variable length coding Huffman coding 41
3 viii Standard codecs: image compression to advanced video coding Arithmetic coding Principles of arithmetic coding Binary arithmetic coding An example of binary arithmetic coding Adaptive arithmetic coding Context-based arithmetic coding A generic interframe video codec Interframe loop Motion estimator Inter/intra switch DCT Quantiser Variable length coding IQ and IDCT Buffer Decoder Constant and variable bit rates Problems 56 References 59 Subband and wavelet Why wavelet transform? Subband coding Wavelet Transform Discrete wavelet transform Multiresolution representation Wavelet transform and filter banks Higher-order systems Wavelet filter design Coding of the wavelet subimages Quantisation by successive approximation Similarities among the bands EZW algorithm Analysis of the algorithm Set partitioning in hierarchical trees (SPIHT) Coding algorithm Embedded block coding with optimised truncation (EBCOT) Bit plane quantisation Conditional arithmetic coding of bit planes (tier 1 coding) Fractional bit plane coding Significance propagation pass Magnitude refinement pass Clean-up pass Layer formation and bitstream organisation (tier 2 coding) Rate control 97
4 Contents ix 4.8 Problems References Coding of still pictures (JPEG and JPEG2000) 5.1 Lossless compression Lossy Problems References compression Baseline sequential mode compression Run length coding Coding of DC coefficients Coding of AC coefficients Entropy coding Extended DCT-based process Hierarchical mode Extra features JPEG2000 JPEG2000 encoder Preprocessor Tiling DC-level shifting Colour transformation Core encoder Discrete wavelet transform Quantisation Entropy coding Postprocessing Some interesting features of JPEG Region of interest Scalability Spatial scalability SNR scalability Resilience Coding for videoconferencing (H.261) Video format and structure Video source coding algorithm Prediction MC/NO_MC decision Inter/intra decision Forced updating Other types of macroblocks Addressing of macroblocks Addressing of blocks Addressing of motion vectors 137
5 x Standard codecs: image compression to advanced video coding 6.4 Quantisation and coding Two-dimensional variable length coding Loop filter Rate control Problems 145 References Coding of moving pictures for digital storage media (MPEG-1) Systems coding outline Multiplexing elementary streams Synchronisation Preprocessing Picture reordering Video structure Group of pictures Picture Slice Macroblock Block Encoder Quantisation weighting matrix Motion estimation Larger search range Motion estimation with half-pixel precision Bidirectional motion estimation Motion range Coding of pictures I-pictures P-pictures B-pictures D-pictures Video buffer verifier Buffer size and delay Rate control and adaptive quantisation Decoder Decoding for fast play Decoding for pause and step mode Decoding for reverse play Postprocessing Editing Resampling and upconversion Problems " 177 References 178
6 Contents xi Coding of high-quality moving pictures (MPEG-2) MPEG-2 systems Profiles and levels How does the MPEG-2 video encoder differ from MPEG-1? Major differences Minor differences MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 syntax differences MPEG-2 nonscalable coding modes Frame prediction for frame pictures Field prediction for field pictures Field prediction for frame pictures Dual prime for P-pictures x 8 motion compensation for field pictures Restrictions on field pictures Motion vectors for chrominance components Concealment motion vectors Scalability Layering versus scalability Data partitioning SNR scalability Spatial scalability Temporal scalability Hybrid scalability Spatial and temporal hybrid scalability SNR and spatial hybrid scalability SNR and temporal hybrid scalability SNR, spatial and temporal hybrid scalability Overhead due to scalability Applications of scalability Video broadcasting Digital versatile disc Video over ATM networks Problems 221 References 222 Video coding for low bit rate communications (H.263) How does H.263 differ from H.261 and MPEG-1? Coding of H.263 coefficients Coding of motion vectors Source pictures Picture layer Switched multipoint Freeze picture request Fast update request Freeze picture release Continuous presence multipoint 230
7 X11 Standard codecs: image compression to advanced video coding 9.3 Extensions of H Scope and goals of H Scopes and goals of H.26L Optional modes of H Advanced motion estimation/compensation Unrestricted motion vector Advanced prediction Four motion vectors per macroblock Overlapped motion compensation Importance of motion estimation Deblocking filter Motion estimation/compensation with spatial transforms Treatment of B-pictures PB frames mode Macroblock type Motion vectors for B-pictures in PB frames Prediction for a B-block in PB frames Improved PB frames Quantisation of B-pictures Advanced variable length coding Syntax-based arithmetic coding Reversible variable length coding Resynchronisation markers Advanced intra/inter VLC Advanced intra coding Advanced inter coding with switching between two VLC tables Protection against error Forward error correction Back channel Data partitioning Error detection by postprocessing Error concealment Intraframe error concealment Interframe error concealment Loss concealment Selection of best-estimated motion vector Scalability Temporal scalability SNR scalability Spatial scalability Multilayer scalability Transmission order of pictures Buffer regulation Problems 278 References 279
8 Contents xiii Content-based video coding (MPEG-4 visual) Profiles and levels Video object plane Coding of objects Encoding of VOPs Formation of VOP Image segmentation Semiautomatic segmentation Automatic segmentation Image gradient Nonlinear diffusion Colour edge detection Watershed transform Immersion watershed flooding Topological distance watershed Colour similarity merging Region motion estimation Object mask creation Shape coding Coding of binary alpha planes Chain code Quad tree coding Modified modified Reed Context-based arithmetic coding Size conversion Generation of context index Greyscale shape coding Motion estimation and compensation Texture coding Shape-adaptive DCT Coding of the background Coding of synthetic objects Coding of still images Coding of the lowest band Coding of higher bands Shape-adaptive wavelet transform Video coding with the wavelet transform Virtual zero tree algorithm Coding of high-resolution video Coding of low-resolution video Scalability Fine granularity scalability Object-based scalability MPEG-4 versus H Problems 330 References
9 xiv Standard codecs: image compression to advanced video coding 11 Advanced video coding (H.264) Picture format Slicing Slice types An overview of the encoder Progressive and interlaced coding Macroblock syntax elements Intra prediction Intra4x Intra 16 x Chroma prediction I_PCM Inter prediction Variable block size motion estimation Motion estimation Fast motion estimation in H Prediction selection Early termination Motion vector refinement Fractional precision of motion vectors Chroma interpolation Motion compensation and slice type P-skip Motion compensation in B-slices Multiple reference picture motion compensation Multiple reference picture weighted prediction Transformation and quantisation Transformation Quantisation Deblocking filter Boundary strength Filtering decision Filter implementation Entropy coding Exp-Golomb CAVLC encoding for residual data Encode number of coefficients and trailing Is (71s) Encode sign of each Encode levels of nonzero coefficients Encode each run of zeros CABAC: Context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding Binarisation Context modelling Binary arithmetic coding 369
10 Contents xv Rate distortion optimisation Lagrangian optimisation technique Optimisation process Selection of A Error resilient encoding Error concealment Profiles Problems References Error detection Flexible macroblock ordering (FMO) Data partitioning Intra-MB/1DR Multiple reference pictures Redundant slices Stream switching PSP-picture SSP-picture Si-picture Switching between two streams Error recovery Encoding of switching pictures Weighted pixel value averaging Boundary matching based motion vectors and levels Compression gain and complexity of H Scalable Compression gain Complexity video coding Temporal scalability Spatial scalability Prediction of macroblock modes Prediction of residuals Quality (SNR) scalability Combined scalability SVC profiles Scalable baseline profile Scalable high profile Scalable high intra profile Network abstraction layer NAL header format Parameter sets Access unit NAL type NAL for SVC
11 Standard codecs: image compression to advanced video coding Content description, search and delivery (MPEG-7 and MPEG-21) 12.1 MPEG-7: multimedia content description interface Description levels Application area Indexing and query Colour descriptors Colour space Colour quantisation Dominant colour(s) Scalable colour Colour structure Colour layout GOP colour Texture descriptors Homogeneous texture Texture browsing Edgehistogram Shape descriptors Region-based shapes Contour-based shape Three-dimensional shape Motion descriptors Camera motion Motion trajectory Parametric motion Motion activity Localisation Region locator Spatio-temporal locator Others Face recognition 12.2 Practical examples of image retrieval Texture-based image retrieval Shape-based retrieval Sketch-based retrieval 12.3 MPEG-21: multimedia framework References Digital item declaration Digital item identification and description Content handling and usage Intellectual property and management Terminal and networks Content representation Event reporting
12 Contents xvii Appendix А А 'С program for the fast discrete cosine transform 435 Appendix В Huffman tables for the DC and AC coefficients of the JPEG baseline encoder 439 Appendix С Huffman tables for quad tree shape coding 443 Appendix D Frequency tables for the CAE encoding of binary shapes 445 Appendix E Channel error/packet loss model 449 Appendix F Solutions to the problems 453 Appendix G Glossary of acronyms 465 Index 469
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