Today s class. Operating System Machine Level. Informationsteknologi. Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 1
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1 Today s class Operating System Machine Level Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 1
2 Operating System Machine Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 2
3 Paging A mapping in which virtual addresses 4096 to 8191 are mapped onto main memory addresses 0 to Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 3
4 Implementation of Paging Virtual address space divided into a number of equal-sized pages Main memory is divided the same way This figure shows 4KB pages for the first 64KB of virtual memory Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 4
5 Implementation of Paging Physical memory is divided into page frames, each frame capable of holding one page of virtual memory This shows 32KB of physical memory divided into 4KB page frames Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 5
6 Implementation of Paging Memory Management Unit handles translation of virtual address to physical address Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 6
7 Demand Paging Not all virtual pages will be in main memory at the same time When a reference is made to a virtual page that is not in main memory you generate a page fault The operating system must retrieve the desired page from disk and place it in physical memory Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 7
8 Working Set The set of pages that a program is actively and heavily using is called the working set Ideally want the working set kept in main memory to reduce page faults Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 8
9 Page Replacement Policy When a page fault is generated a page of virtual memory must be brought into main memory If main memory is full a page from main memory must be written back to disk (if it was changed) or otherwise removed to make room for the new page How the page to remove is chosen is known as the page replacement policy Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 9
10 Least Recently Used (LRU) Remove the page from memory that was used the longest ago Works well if the working set fits in main memory If it doesn t, bad things can happen, as shown here: the working set contains a loop that covers 9 pages of memory, but room for only 8 in physical memory Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 10
11 First-In, First-Out (FIFO) Removes the page loaded into memory longest ago, independent of when it was last referenced. Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 11
12 Segments Some software products generate many tables that grow and shrink in size during program execution Compilers are notorious for this Segments provide a way to provide completely independent address spaces Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 12
13 Segmented Memory Allows each table to grow or shrink independently of the other tables. Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 13
14 Comparison of Paging and Segmentation Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 14
15 External Fragmentation Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 15
16 Segmentation with Paging Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 16
17 Virtual Memory on the Pentium 4 Sophisticated! Supports: Demand paging Pure segmentation Segmentation with paging Two tables: LDT (Local Descriptor Table), one for each program GDT (Global Descriptor Table), shared by all programs Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 17
18 Pentium 4 Selector Used for accessing a segment The 13-bit index specifies the LDT or GDT entry number, so each table can have at most 8 KB segment descriptors Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 18
19 Pentium 4 Code Segment Descriptor 8 bytes Includes segment s base address, size, and other information Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 19
20 Obtaining a Linear Address If paging is disabled, the linear address is interpreted as the physical address If paging is enabled, the linear address is interpreted as a virtual address Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 20
21 Protection on the Pentium 4 Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 21
22 Virtual I/O Instructions I/O is one area where OSM and ISA levels differ considerably User does not want to deal with the complexities of device register interactions One way of organizing the virtual I/O is to use an abstraction called a file Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 22
23 Files To the operating system a file is normally just a sequence of bytes However, some operating systems can organize a file into a sequence of logical records Any further structure is up to the application programs I/O is done by system calls for opening, reading, writing, and closing files Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 23
24 Disk Allocation Strategies A file in consecutive sectors. A file not in consecutive sectors. Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 24
25 Keeping Track of Available Sectors Free list Bit map Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 25
26 Directories Organize files on disk A user file directory and the contents of a typical entry in a file directory are shown at the right Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 26
27 Parallel Processing True parallel processing Parallel processing simulated by switching with multiple CPUs one CPU among three processes Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 27
28 Processes A program runs as part of a process Processes can be created and terminated dynamically To achieve parallel processing a system call to create a process is needed Created process can: Exist in a parent/child relationship with creating process Run completely independently of creating process Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 28
29 Communication Parallel processes need to communicate and synchronize with each other to get their work done As an example, two processes can communicate via a shared memory buffer Consider process 1 the producer, which puts data values into the buffer Consider process 2 the consumer, which takes data values out of the buffer Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 29
30 Synchronization The two processes run in parallel at different rates If the producer discovers the buffer is full it suspends itself until a signal from the consumer tells it there is room in the buffer If the consumer discovers the buffer is empty it suspends itself until a signal from the producer that there is a number in the buffer Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 30
31 Circular Buffer Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 31
32 Race Condition Suppose only one number left in buffer at location 21 (in = 22 and out = 21) Now suppose the consumer takes this number out, changing out to 22 Suppose the consumer continues, and gets to the point where it fetches in and out getting ready to compare them to see if they are equal (indicating an empty buffer) After the fetch, but before the comparison, the producer puts the next number into the buffer and increments in to 23 Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 32
33 Race Condition It now recognizes there is only one number in the buffer so sends a signal to the consumer to wake up; the consumer is awake so the signal is lost Now the consumer goes back to work and thinks the buffer is empty (in = out) and goes to sleep Now the producer puts another number in the buffer, but since it sees two numbers in the buffer it (incorrectly) assumes the consumer is awake Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 33
34 Race Condition Producer continues running and eventually fills the buffer; when it does so it will go to sleep Consumer is asleep and never gets a signal to wake up Both processes are sleeping and will remain so forever This came about because of a race condition, because it was a race to see who modified in or out first Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 34
35 Semaphores Non-negative integer variables that solve the communication problem between parallel processes Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 35
36 Windows XP Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 36
37 Windows XP Virtual Memory Each process has its own virtual address space Virtual addresses are 32 bits long, so there s a 4 GB virtual address space The lower 2 GB are available for the process code and data The upper 2 GB allow limited access to kernel memory Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 37
38 Windows XP Virtual I/O XP supports several file systems, but the one of most interest is NTFS (NT File System) Unicode is used throughout XP File names can be up to 255 characters A file is just a linear sequence of bytes, up to a maximum of bytes Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 38
39 Principal Win32 API Functions for File I/O Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 39
40 Principal Win32 API Functions for Directory Work Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 40
41 Windows XP Master File Table Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 41
42 Windows XP Process Management XP supports multiple processes Processes can communicate and synchronize No enforcement of parent-child or other hierarchy all processes are created equal Friday, November 16, 2007 Computer Architecture I - Class 12 42
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