Chapter 6. Delivery and Forwarding of IP Packets
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1 Chapter 6 Delivery and Forwarding of IP Packets TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1 Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2 OBJECTIVES: To discuss the delivery of packets in the network layer and distinguish between direct and indirect delivery. To discuss the forwarding of packets in the network layer and distinguish between destination-address based forwarding and label-based forwarding. To discuss different forwarding techniques, including next-hop, network-specific, host-specific, and default. To discuss the contents of routing tables in classful and classless addressing and some algorithms used to search the tables. To introduce MPLS technology and show how it can achieve label based forwarding. To list the components of a router and explain the purpose of each component and their relations to other components. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 2
3 Chapter Outline TCP/IP Protocol Suite 3
4 6-1 DELIVERY The network layer supervises the handling of the packets by the underlying physical networks. We define this handling as the delivery of a packet. The delivery of a packet to its final destination is accomplished using two different methods of delivery: direct and indirect. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4
5 Topics Discussed in the Section Direct Delivery Indirect Delivery TCP/IP Protocol Suite 5
6 Figure 6.1 Direct delivery Direct delivery Direct delivery TCP/IP Protocol Suite 6
7 Figure 6.2 Indirect delivery A B Link Link Link Indirect delivery Indirect delivery TCP/IP Protocol Suite 7
8 6-2 FORWARDING Forwarding means to place the packet in its route to its destination. Since the Internet today is made of a combination of links (networks), forwarding means to deliver the packet to the next hop (which can be the final destination or the intermediate connecting device). Although the IP protocol was originally designed as a connectionless protocol, today the tendency is to use IP as a connection-oriented protocol. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 8
9 Topics Discussed in the Section Forwarding Based on Destination Address Forwarding Based on Label TCP/IP Protocol Suite 9
10 Figure 6.3 Next-hop method TCP/IP Protocol Suite 10
11 Figure 6.4 Network-specific method Network-specific routing table for host S Host-specific routing table for host S Destination Next Hop N2 R1 Destination A B C D Next Hop R1 R1 R1 R1 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 11
12 Figure 6.5 Host-specific routing Routing table for host A Destination Host B N2 N3... Next Hop R3 R1 R3... Host A N1 R1 R3 Host B N2 R2 N3 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 12
13 Figure 6.6 Default routing Routing table for host A Destination Next Hop Host A N1 N2 N2... R1... R1 Default R2 Default router R2 Rest of the Internet TCP/IP Protocol Suite 13
14 Figure 6.7 Simplified forwarding module in classful address without subnetting TCP/IP Protocol Suite 14
15 Example 6.1 Figure 6.8 shows an imaginary part of the Internet. Show the routing tables for router R1. Solution Figure 6.9 shows the three tables used by router R1. Note that some entries in the next-hop address column are empty because in these cases, the destination is in the same network to which the router is connected (direct delivery). In these cases, the next-hop address used by ARP is simply the destination address of the packet as we will see in Chapter 8. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 15
16 Figure 6.8 Configuration for routing, Example 6.1 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 16
17 Figure 6.9 Tables for Example 6.1 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17
18 Example 6.2 Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with destination address Show how the packet is forwarded. Solution The destination address is A copy of the address is shifted 28 bits to the right. The result is or 12. The destination network is class C. The network address is extracted by masking off the leftmost 24 bits of the destination address; the result is The table for Class C is searched. The network address is found in the first row. The next-hop address and the interface m0 are passed to ARP (see Chapter 8). TCP/IP Protocol Suite 18
19 Example 6.3 Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with destination address Show how the packet is forwarded. Solution The destination address in binary is A copy of the address is shifted 28 bits to the right. The result is or 10. The class is B. The network address can be found by masking off 16 bits of the destination address, the result is The table for Class B is searched. No matching network address is found. The packet needs to be forwarded to the default router (the network is somewhere else in the Internet). The next-hop address and the interface number m0 are passed to ARP. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 19
20 Figure 6.10 Simplified forwarding module in classful address with subnetting TCP/IP Protocol Suite 20
21 Example 6.4 Figure 6.11 shows a router connected to four subnets. Note several points. First, the site address is /16 (a class B address). Every packet with destination address in the range to is delivered to the interface m4 and distributed to the final destination subnet by the router. Second, we have used the address x.y.z.t/n for the interface m4 because we do not know to which network this router is connected. Third, the table has a default entry for packets that are to be sent out of the site. The router is configured to apply the subnet mask /18 to any destination address. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 21
22 Figure 6.11 Configuration for Example 6.4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 22
23 Example 6.5 The router in Figure 6.11 receives a packet with destination address Show how the packet is forwarded. Solution The mask is /18. After applying the mask, the subnet address is The packet is delivered to ARP (see Chapter 8) with the next-hop address and the outgoing interface m0. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 23
24 Example 6.6 A host in network in Figure 6.11 has a packet to send to the host with address Show how the packet is routed. Solution The router receives the packet and applies the mask (/18). The network address is The table is searched and the address is not found. The router uses the address of the default router (not shown in figure) and sends the packet to that router. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 24
25 Note In classful addressing we can have a routing table with three columns; in classless addressing, we need at least four columns. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 25
26 Figure 6.12 Simplified forwarding module in classless address TCP/IP Protocol Suite 26
27 Example 6.7 Make a routing table for router R1 using the configuration in Figure Solution Table 6.1 shows the corresponding table TCP/IP Protocol Suite 27
28 Figure 6.13 Configuration for Example 6.7 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 28
29 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 29
30 Example 6.8 Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1 in Figure 6.13 with the destination address Solution The router performs the following steps: 1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination address. The result is , which does not match the corresponding network address. 2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination address. The result is , which matches the corresponding network address. The next-hop address (the destination address of the packet in this case) and the interface number m0 are passed to ARP (see Chapter 8) for further processing. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 30
31 Example 6.9 Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1 in Figure 6.13 with the destination address Solution The router performs the following steps: 1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination address. The result is , which does not match the corresponding network address (row 1). 2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination address. The result is , which does not match the corresponding network address (row 2). 3. The third mask (/24) is applied to the destination address. The result is , which matches the corresponding network address. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 31
32 Example 6.10 Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1 in Figure 6.13 with the destination address Solution This time all masks are applied to the destination address, but no matching network address is found. When it reaches the end of the table, the module gives the next-hop address and interface number m2 to ARP (see Chapter 8). This is probably an outgoing package that needs to be sent, via the default router, to someplace else in the Internet. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 32
33 Example 6.11 Now let us give a different type of example. Can we find the configuration of a router if we know only its routing table? The routing table for router R1 is given in Table 6.2. Can we draw its topology? Solution We know some facts but we don t have all for a definite topology. We know that router R1 has three interfaces: m0, m1, and m2. We know that there are three networks directly connected to router R1. We know that there are two networks indirectly connected to R1. There must be at least three other routers involved (see next-hop column). We do not know if network is connected to router R3 directly or through a point-to-point network (WAN) and another router. Figure 6.14 shows our guessed topology. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 33
34 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 34
35 Figure 6.14 Guessed topology for Example 6.11 TCP/IP Protocol Suite 35
36 Figure 6.15 Address aggregation TCP/IP Protocol Suite 36
37 Figure 6.16 Longest mask matching TCP/IP Protocol Suite 37
38 Example 6.12 As an example of hierarchical routing, let us consider Figure A regional ISP is granted 16,384 addresses starting from The regional ISP has decided to divide this block into 4 subblocks, each with 4096 addresses. Three of these subblocks are assigned to three local ISPs, the second subblock is reserved for future use. Note that the mask for each block is /20 because the original block with mask /18 is divided into 4 blocks. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 38
39 Figure 6.17 Hierarchical routing with ISPs TCP/IP Protocol Suite 39
40 Example 6.13 Figure 6.18 shows a simple example of searching in a routing table using the longest match algorithm. Although there are some more efficient algorithms today, the principle is the same. When the forwarding algorithm gets the destination address of the packet, it needs to delve into the mask column. For each entry, it needs to apply the mask to find the destination network address. It then needs to check the network addresses in the table until it finds the match. The router then extracts the next hop address and the interface number to be delivered to the ARP protocol for delivery of the packet to the next hop. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 40
41 Figure 6.18 Example 6.13: Forwarding based on destination address Destination address interface and next-hop address x x y TCP/IP Protocol Suite 41
42 Example 6.14 Figure 6.19 shows a simple example of using a label to access a switching table. Since the labels are used as the index to the table, finding the information in the table is immediate. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 42
43 Figure 6.19 Example 6.14: Forwarding based on label Label used as index Switching Table Interface Next label Label interface and label address Switch TCP/IP Protocol Suite 43
44 Figure 6.20 MPLS header added to an IP packet TCP/IP Protocol Suite 44
45 Figure 6.21 MPLS header made of stack of labels TCP/IP Protocol Suite 45
46 6-3 STRUCTURE OF A ROUTER In our discussion of forwarding and routing, we represented a router as a black box that accepts incoming packets from one of the input ports (interfaces), uses a routing table to find the output port from which the packet departs, and sends the packet from this output port. In this section we open the black box and look inside. However, our discussion won t be very detailed; entire books have been written about routers. We just give an overview to the reader. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 46
47 Topics Discussed in the Section Components TCP/IP Protocol Suite 47
48 Figure 6.22 Router components TCP/IP Protocol Suite 48
49 Figure 6.23 Input port TCP/IP Protocol Suite 49
50 Figure 6.24 Output port TCP/IP Protocol Suite 50
51 Figure 6.25 Crossbar switch TCP/IP Protocol Suite 51
52 Figure 6.26 A banyan switch TCP/IP Protocol Suite 52
53 Figure 6.27 Examples of routing in a banyan switch TCP/IP Protocol Suite 53
54 Figure 6.28 Batcher-banyan switch TCP/IP Protocol Suite 54
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