Texting distracted driving behaviour among European drivers: influence of attitudes, subjective norms and risk perception

Transcription

1 Texting distracted driving behaviour among European drivers: influence of attitudes, subjective norms and risk perception Alain Areal Authors: Carlos Pires Prevenção Rodoviária Portuguesa, Lisboa, Portugal Sofia Tavares Departamento de Psicologia, Escola de Ciências Sociais and Centro de Investigação em Educação e Psicologia, Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal Alain Areal Prevenção Rodoviária Portuguesa, Lisboa, Portugal José Trigoso Prevenção Rodoviária Portuguesa, Lisboa, Portugal 5th International Conference on Driver Distraction and Inattention March 20-22, 2017 Paris, France

2 ESRA ESRA 2015 European Survey of Road users safety Attitudes Deliverables & Publications Main ESRA report 17 European countries Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands, United Kingdom Six thematic reports: Distraction and fatigue DUI alcohol and drugs Speeding Seat belt and child restraint systems Subjective safety & risk perception Enforcement and support for road safety policy measures

3 ESRA Data set and survey methodology (Torfs et al., 2016) ESRA survey (European Survey of Road users safety Attitudes) The ESRA survey covered a range of subjects, including, amongst others, self-declared unsafe traffic behaviours, social norms, risk perception, and attitudes towards those behaviours; Different road safety topics were assessed: speeding, driving under influence of alcohol or drugs/medication, distraction, fatigue, and seat belt use; Representative samples of the national adult populations in 17 European countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands, and United Kingdom; Target population: adult population (18+) of each country - at least 1,000 road users for each country; Gender and age were used as sampling variables within each country; Total sample size consisted of 17,767 road users from the 17 countries; Sample in this study 14,920 car drivers who drive at least a few days a year.

4 OBJECTIVES Objectives Assess the self-declared behaviours, the attitudes, the risk perception, and the subjective norms concerning texting while driving, by sex and age group; Study the association between sending text messages while driving (self-declared behaviour) and: Sociodemographic characteristics; Risk perception of sending text messages while driving; Attitudes towards sending text messages while driving; Subjective norms concerning sending text messages while driving; Other risky driving behaviours (self-declared behaviours).

5 MATERIALS AND METHODS Statistical analysis Logistic multilevel regression models to identify the factors that influence sending text messages/ s while driving; A random intercept was assigned to the variable country (2nd level) to incorporate within-country correlations; Odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals were used as summary statistics; Mediation effects were assessed following the steps proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986); All the analyses were conducted separately in the male sample and in the female sample; The sample was weighted in all the analysis making it representative of the population surveyed. The weighting took into account the representativeness within a country (based on the age and gender interlaced), and the proportion of a specific country within the group of 17 countries. Software: IBM SPSS (version 23.0 for Windows ) and the R software package lme4 (Bates et al., 2015) for logistic multilevel regression models.

6 MATERIALS AND METHODS Measures Self-declared behaviours In the past 12 months, as a road user, how often did you?... send a text message or while driving... read a text message or while driving... other risky behaviours: talk on a hand-held mobile phone while driving, talk on a hands-free mobile phone while driving, drive faster than the speed limit, drive after drinking alcohol,... Response Likert scale from 1 = never to 5 = (almost) always dichotomized in never (1)/ at least once (2-5). Risk perception... how many accidents out of 100 were caused by sending a text message while driving For the analysis, the variable was categorized in four factors based on quartiles: Risk 1 - Low (min - Q1) Risk 2 (Q1 - Q2) Risk 3 (Q2 - Q3) Risk 4 - High (Q3 Max)

7 MATERIALS AND METHODS Measures Subjective norms Where you live, how acceptable would most other people say it is for a driver to.?... type text messages or s while driving... check or update social media (example: Facebook, twitter, etc.) while driving Attitudes How acceptable do you, personally, feel it is for a driver to?... type text messages or s while driving... check or update social media (example: Facebook, twitter, etc.) while driving Response Likert scale from 1 = unacceptable to 5 = acceptable. Dichotomized in unacceptable or neutral (1-3)/ acceptable (4-5).

8 9,3% 10,4% 17,8% 18,9% 17,7% 18,9% 17,9% 18,4% 19,5% 17,8% 17,9% 15,6% RESULTS Descriptive analysis Sociodemographic characteristics N = 14,920 car drivers Females: n = 6,988 (46.8%) Males: n = 7,932 (53.2%) Age group Male Female Educational level Male Female Master s degree or higher Bachelor s degree or similar Secondary education Primary education or none 5,6% 6,2% 20,9% 18,1% 30,0% 29,5% 43,5% 46,2% Frequency of driving Male Female At least 4 days a week 1 to 3 days a week A few days a month or less A few days a year 17,7% 19,9% 6,1% 8,8% 2,3% 4,5% 73,9% 66,8% Figure 1. Sociodemographic characteristics concerning age, educational level and frequency of driving, by sex.

9 RESULTS Descriptive analysis Texting while driving self-declared behaviours In the past 12 months, how often did you... while driving? A. Send text msg/ s Female Male 53,2% 49,9% 42,4% 46,1% 40,3% 23,8% 30,2% 21,8% 14,4% 11,3% 4,2% 4,2% 18-24y 25-34y 35-44y 45-54y 55-64y 65+ B. Read text msg/ s Female Male 60,1% 59,5% 54,3% 55,6% 45,7% 35,7% 41,5% 26,0% 29,6% 18,5% 10,2% 10,1% 18-24y 25-34y 35-44y 45-54y 55-64y 65+ Figure 2. Self-declared behaviours concerning texting while driving, by sex and age group (% of at least once )

10 RESULTS Descriptive analysis Texting while driving attitudes How acceptable do you, personally, feel it is for a driver to... while driving? A. Send txt msg/ s Female Male 8,2% 7,3% B. Check/update social media Female Male 9,3% 7,0% 4,0% 4,7% 5,0% 3,1% 2,2% 2,0% 0,7% 1,4% 1,0% 0,4% 18-24y 25-34y 35-44y 45-54y 55-64y 65+ 3,8% 4,4% 4,6% 1,9% 1,8% 2,7% 0,7% 1,0% 0,9% 0,3% 18-24y 25-34y 35-44y 45-54y 55-64y 65+ Figure 3. Attitudes concerning texting while driving, by sex and age group (% of acceptable )

11 RESULTS Descriptive analysis Texting while driving subjective norms Where you live, how acceptable would most other people say it is for a driver to... while driving? A. Send txt msg/ s Female Male 13,6% 13,7% 11,5% B. Check/update social media Female Male 13,5% 12,2% 11,5% 8,3% 10,7% 10,8% 8,4% 5,6% 5,0% 4,7% 9,1% 10,8% 9,7% 7,4% 5,9% 5,6% 4,7% 3,8% 2,1% 3,5% 1,8% 18-24y 25-34y 35-44y 45-54y 55-64y y 25-34y 35-44y 45-54y 55-64y 65+ Figure 4. Subjective norms concerning texting while driving, by sex and age group (% of acceptable )

12 RESULTS Descriptive analysis Texting while driving risk perception How many accidents out of 100 were caused by sending a text message while driving Send text msg Female Male 23,2 22,7 24,1 24,9 24,8 21,3 22,9 22,7 19,1 20,2 21,0 17, y 25-34y 35-44y 45-54y 55-64y 65+ Figure 5. Risk perception concerning sending text messages while driving, by sex and age group (number of accidents out of 100 caused by sending text messages while driving mean)

13 RESULTS Descriptive analysis Other self-declared behaviours In the past 12 months, how often did you... while driving? Drive fast than the speed limit outside built-up areas (except motorways/freeways) Drive fast than the speed limit on motorways/ freeways Drive fast than the speed limit inside built-up areas Drive when too tired to drive Drive without respecting a safe distance to the car in front Not indicating directions when overtake, turn left or turn right Talk on a hands-free mobile phone while driving Drive aggressively Talk on a hand-held mobile phone while driving Drive after drinking alcohol Drive after using drugs 78,0% 67,5% 78,4% 66,8% 72,0% 62,8% 65,1% 54,4% 65,1% 53,3% 52,8% 45,6% 56,3% 45,3% 54,8% 38,8% 41,4% 33,6% 37,6% 23,1% 13,2% 8,2% (% of at least once) Male Female Figure 6. Self-declared traffic behaviours, by sex (% of at least once )

14 RESULTS Predictors of sending text messages/ s while driving Sociodemographic factors Table 2. Logistic multilevel models for sending text messages or s while driving: effect of sociodemographic factors (for male drivers and for female drivers). Factors FEMALE MALE Odds Ratio (CI95%) Odds Ratio (CI95%) Age group (Ref.) (0.83, 1.30) 0.77* (0.63, 0.95) ** (0.36, 0.57) 0.57** (0.46, 0.70) ** (0.26, 0.42) 0.23**(0.19, 0.29) ** (0.12, 0.21) 0.13** (0.10, 0.16) ** (0.04, 0.08) 0.03** (0.02, 0.04) Educational level Primary education or none (Ref.) 1 1 Secondary education 1.12 (0.78, 1.60) 0.97 (0.71, 1.32) Bachelor s degree or similar 1.28 (0.88, 1.87) 1.17 (0.85, 1.60) Master s degree or higher 1.47* (1.01, 2.15) 1.22 (0.89, 1.68) Frequency of driving A few days a month or less (Ref.) to 3 days a week 1.95** (1.41, 2.70) 1.06 (0.81, 1.41) At least 4 days a week 3.36** (2.51, 4.50) 1.46** (1.14, 1.87) Logistic multilevel models with country as 2 nd level (random intercept); dependent variable: self-declared behaviour - send a text message or while driving (0=never; 1=at least once); **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

15 RESULTS Predictors of sending text messages/ s while driving Attitudes, subjective norms, and risk perception Table 3. Logistic multilevel models for sending text messages or s while driving: effect of attitudes, subjective norms and risk perception (for male drivers and for female drivers). FEMALE MALE Factors Odds Ratio (CI95%) Odds Ratio (CI95%) Attitudes (acceptable vs. unacceptable/neutral) ** (5.91, 13.04) 4.70** (3.50, 6.30) Subjective norms (acceptable vs. unacceptable/neutral) (0.69, 1.18) 1.51** (1.23, 1.86) Risk perception 3 Risk 1 - Low (min - Q1) (Ref.) 1 1 Risk 2 (Q1 - Q2) 0.80* (0.66, 0.96) 1.00 (0.85, 1.17) Risk 3 (Q2 - Q3) 0.78* (0.63, 0.96) 0.87 (0.72, 1.04) Risk 4 - High (Q3 Max) 0.58** (0.48, 0.70) 0.91 (0.76, 1.08) Logistic multilevel models with country as 2 nd level (random intercept); dependent variable: self-declared behaviour - send a text message or while driving (0=never; 1=at least once); adjusted for age, education level and frequency of driving; **p < 0.01; *p < How acceptable do you, personally, feel it is for a driver to send text messages or s while driving? ; 2 Where you live, how acceptable would most other people say it is for a driver to send text messages or s while driving? ; 3 Number of accidents, out of 100, caused by sending a text message while driving. Variable categorized based on quartiles.

16 RESULTS Predictors of sending text messages/ s while driving Other self-declared behaviours Table 4. Logistic multilevel models for sending text messages or s while driving: effect of other risky traffic behaviours (for male drivers and for female drivers). FEMALE MALE Factors 1 Odds Ratio (CI95%) Odds Ratio (CI95%) Talk on a hand-held mobile phone while driving 6.96** (5.68, 8.53) 7.37** (6.13, 8.85) Drive fast than the speed limit (inside built-up areas) 1.63** (1.27, 2.10) 2.37** (1.82, 3.09) Drive after drinking alcohol 1.95** (1.55, 2.45) 1.72** (1.42, 2.07) Drive after using drugs 6.89** (4.60, 10.30) 4.73** (3.60, 6.21) Drive when too tired to drive 0.91 (0.74, 1.12) 1.58** (1.28, 1.93) Drive aggressively 1.32** (1.07, 1.64) 1.10 (0.91, 1.34) Drive without respecting a safe distance to the car in front 1.78** (1.42, 2.22) 1.23 (0.98, 1.53) Not indicating directions when overtake, turn left or turn right 1.40** (1.13, 1.72) 1.65** (1.36, 2.00) Logistic multilevel models with country as 2 nd level (random intercept); dependent variable: self-declared behaviour - send a text message or e- mail while driving (0=never; 1=at least once); adjusted for age, education level and frequency of driving; **p < 0.01; *p < Self-declared behaviours: 0=never; 1=at least once in the past 12 months.

17 RESULTS Mediation effects Subjective norms Attitudes Self-declared behaviour FEMALE MALE Subjective norms [1] OR = 1.39** [3] OR = 0.88 Self Dec. Behaviour Subjective norms [1] OR = 2.05** [3] OR = 1.52** Self Dec. Behaviour [2] OR = 13.24** [3] OR = 9.19** [2] OR = 10.93** [3] OR = 4.70** Attitudes Attitudes Figure 6. Mediation effects of attitudes on the relationship between subjective norms and self-declared behaviour of sending text messages/ s while driving, in female and male samples. Logistic multilevel models with country as 2 nd level (random intercept); adjusted for age, education level and frequency of driving; OR Odds Ratio; **p < 0.01; *p < [1] Model 1: Independent Variable: subjective norms -> Dependent Variable: self-declared behaviour; [2] Model 2: Independent Variable: subjective norms -> Dependent Variable: attitudes; [3] Model 3: Independent Variables: subjective norms & attitudes -> Dependent Variable: self-declared behaviour.

18 CONCLUSIONS Conclusions The likelihood of sending text messages/ s while driving decreases with the increase of the age among men, and among women (only after 35 years old); Women with higher educational level are more likely to send text messages/ s while driving; The likelihood of sending text messages/ s while driving increases with the increase of the frequency of driving (stronger effect among women); Risk perception of sending text messages/ s while driving has a negative effect on the selfdeclared behaviour among women, but not among men; Attitudes towards sending text messages/ s while driving have a strong effect on the selfdeclared behaviour (stronger effect among women); Subjective norms concerning texting while driving affect the behaviour among men, but not among women; Attitudes mediate the relationship between subjective norms and the self-declared behaviour of sending text messages/ s while driving; Strong association between sending text messages/ s while driving and other risky driving behaviours.

19 REFERENCES References Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, ; Douglas Bates, Martin Maechler, Ben Bolker, Steve Walker (2015). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), <doi: /jss.v067.i01>; Torfs, K., Meesmann, U., Van den Berghe, W., & Trotta, M. (2016). ESRA 2015 The results. Synthesis of the main findings from the ESRA survey in 17 countries. ESRA project (European Survey of Road users safety Attitudes). Brussels, Belgium: Belgian Road Safety Institute Trigoso J., Areal A., & Pires C. (2017). Distraction and fatigue. ESRA thematic report no. 3. ESRA project (European Survey of Road users safety Attitudes). Lisbon, Portugal: Prevenção Rodoviária Portuguesa