L o o p s. for(initializing expression; control expression; step expression) { one or more statements }

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1 L o o p s Objective #1: Explain the importance of loops in programs. In order to write a non trivial computer program, you almost always need to use one or more loops. Loops allow your program to repeat groups of statements a specified number of times. Loops are classified as a type of iteration (or repetition) structure. It is important to be aware of how many iterations a given loop is expected to perform. If a loop does not iterate a finite number of times, it is considered to be an infinite loop. Rarely would a programmer ever intentionally incorporate an infinite loop into a program, however it is easy to do so by mistake. It is important to write out and trace loops carefully to avoid an off by one bug (OBOB). An off by one bug is a logic mistake caused by a loop iterating one extra time. Objective #2: Use for loops. A for loop always executes a specific number of iterations. Use a for loop when you know exactly how many times a set of statements must be repeated. A for loop is called a determinate or definite loop because the programmer knows exactly how many times it will iterate. You can mathematically determine the number of iterations by deskchecking the logic of the loop. After the keyword, for, a set of parentheses is necessary with three expressions as parameters. for(initializing expression; control expression; step expression) one or more statements The initializing expression sets the counter variable for the loop to its initial value. The control expression ends the loop at the specified moment. The step expression (or incrementing expression) changes the counter variable,effectively determining the number of iterations. The counter variable often increments by one, but it may increment, decrement, or count in other ways. The one or more statements in the curly braces is the body of the loop Example: for (i = 1; i <= 3; i++) It is possible to initialize the loop variable within the initializing expression as in: for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) However the scope of i is the loop and i cannot be used outside of the loop even if the loop is written without curly braces. Note the compile error that occurs in the following example, for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)

2 // causes compile error since i was declared inside the for loop, its scope is limited to the body of the for loop and it cannot be used or referenced outside of the for loop. In fact, curly braces can be used to narrow the scope of a variable in non loop situations. In this example, int outside = 5; int inside = outside; outside = inside; an error occurs since the variable inside cannot be used outside of the set of curly braces. Since inside is declared inside of the curly braces, its scope is only the area within the curly braces. You can increment the loop variable by more than 1 if you wish. In the following loop, the loop variable is incremented by 3 on each iteration: for (i = 1; i <= 9; i = i + 3) Of course, the compound operator could be used with i += 3 replacing the i = i + 3 incrementing expression as in this valid example for (i = 1; i <= 9; i += 3) It is a common error for students to mistakenly use: for (i = 1; i <= 9 ; i + 3) instead of the required for (i = 1; i <= 9; i = i + 3) Some programmers use a for loop like, for (;;) System.out.println("Enter a number: "); //user inputs a value into userinput w/ JOptionPane or BufferedReader

3 if (userinput!= 99) runningtotal += userinput; else break; in which case the infinite for loop will run until the break condition is met. Note that technically the initializing, control, and incrementing expressions of a for loop are optional. However, this is poor coding since it can lead to logical errors and you should avoid using break statements and infinite loops when possible. Like if statements and other kinds of loops, the curly braces are not required with a for loop if there is only statement in the body of the loop. However, it is good style to always use curly braces. Review the following valid and invalid examples for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++); System.out.println("hello world"); only displays hello world one time since the extra semicolon is treated as the body of the loop. What displays due to the following code segment? for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) System.out.println("hello"); System.out.println("goodbye"); Answer: hello hello hello hello hello goodbye since the goodbye statement is not considered to be inside the body of the loop! This following examples compile and each display hello world five times even though each one is typed with poor, obfuscated style: for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) System.out.println("hello world"); //

4 one line of code for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) System.out.println("hello world"); // body statement is not indented for(int i=0;i<5;i++) // cramped spacing System.out.println("hello world"); for(int i = 0; i < 5; ) // incrementing expression is placed in the body of the loop System.out.println("hello world"); i++; int i = 0; for( ; i < 5; i++) // initializing expression is placed before & outside of the loop System.out.println("hello world"); int i = 0; for( ; i < 5; ) // initializing & incrementing expressions placed incorrectly. // You may as well use a while loop System.out.println("hello world"); i++; Objective #3: Use while loops. A while loop does not necessarily iterate a specified number of times. Rather, as long as its control expression is true, a while loop will continue to iterate. This type of loop is very useful in situations where a for loop would be ineffective, particularly when the user is given the opportunity to interact with the program. A while loop is considered to be an indeterminate or indefinite loop because usually only at run time can it be determined how many times it will iterate. A while loop is also considered to be a top checking (or pretest) loop, since the control expression is located on the first line of code with the while keyword. That is, if the control expression initially evaluates to FALSE, the loop will not iterate even once. After the keyword, while, a control expression is necessary. while (control expression) one or more statements

5 The control expression must evaluate to TRUE in order for the while loop to iterate. Like if statements and other kinds of loops, the curly braces are not required with a while loop if there is only statement in the body of the loop. However, it is good style to always use curly braces. Example: while (num > 100 ) System.out.println(num); num = num / 2; Any algorithm implemented as a for loop can be rewritten as a while loop with the additional variable declaration and initialization occuring outside of the loop. Conversely, any while loop can be rewritten as a for loop. However, it is best style to use a for loop in situations where the programmer can determine how many loop iterations will be necessary and to use a while loop otherwise. The following code segments are equivalent (except for the scope of i): for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) int i = 0; while (i < 10) i++; Do not place an accidental semicolon after the control expression of a while loop since it will become the body of the loop and lead to a logic error. The following code segment causes an infinite loop since i never becomes equal to or greater than 5 int i = 0; while (i < 5); i++; Objective #4: Use the break and continue statements with loops appropriately. A break statement is used to stop the execution of a loop immediately and to continue by executing the statement that comes directly after the loop. Only use the break statement when it is not practical to control the execution of a loop with its control expression. That is, only use a break statement when absolutely necessary. while (num!= 99) user inputs a value for num here

6 if (num == 99) break; sum += num; however it would be better to write this loop to avoid the use of a break statement if possible since break statements found within a loop can be difficult to pick out by those who read over your code. This version of the same loop would be better for clarity. num = 0; while (num!= 99) sum += num; user inputs a value for num here A continue statement is used to stop the execution of the statements in the loop's body on that particular iteration and to continue by starting the next iteration of the loop. In the following example, all inputed positive numbers less than or equal to 100 are subtotaled. If a negative value is inputed, it is not added to the subtotal but rather the loop continues with the next iteration. Any value greater than 100 could be entered to terminate the loop. while (num <= 100) user inputs a value for num here if (num < 0) continue; sum += num; Objective #5: Use nested loops effectively when appropriate. A loop of any kind may be placed in another loop (of any kind). One must be sure though to entirely encapsulate the inner loop inside of the outer loop, otherwise an error is sure to occur. Two loops are considered to be nested loops if one is enclosed within the other. Example: for (i = 0; i <= 10; i++ )

7 System.out.println("i is " + i); for (j = 10; j >= 0; j ) System.out.println("j is " + j); Example: int row = 0; while (row < 4) int col = 0; while (col < 4) System.out.print("*"); col++; System.out.println(); row++; Objective #6: Use flag variables and sentinel values to control indeterminate loops. A sentinel value is a special value that is used to cause an indeterminant loop to terminate. Often sentinel values are inputed by a user to indicate the end of input. For example, the sentinel value of 99 is used in the loop below to terminate the loop which calculates a bowling average. It should be noted that the 99 is being used as a sentinel value since it is impossible in the sport of bowling to bowl a score of 99. Therefore the sentinel value will not mistakenly be entered as an inputed bowling score. System.out.println("Enter a bowling score ( 99 to quit): "); user inputs a value for score here while (score!= 99) sum += score; numgames++; System.out.println("Enter a bowling score ( 99 to quit): "); user inputs a value for score here System.out.println("Your average is " + (double) sum / numgames); A flag variable is a special variable that is used to control an indeterminate loop. A flag variable is usually a boolean variable that is assigned true or false. Some old fashioned programmers use an int variable and use the value 1 for true and 0 for false.

8 boolean exit = false; while (!exit) System.out.println("1 Book"); System.out.println("2 CD"); System.out.println("3 Exit"); System.out.println("Enter a menu option: "); user inputs a value for menuchoice here if (menuchoice == 1) System.out.println("You ordered another book."); numbooks++; else if (menuchoice == 2) System.out.println("You ordered another cd."); numcds++ else if (menuchoice == 3) exit = true; Objective #7: Identify loop invariants. A loop invariant is an expression that is always true at the top of a loop. It is an expression that is true every time the loop iterates including the last time around the loop even when the loop's control expression is false and the loop terminates. Consider the loop int sum = 10; for (int i = 2; i < 12; i += 2) sum += i; The following are loop invariants for the loop above: i is always even i <= 12 i is positive sum > i

9 The following is not a loop invariant: i < 12 since i is equal to 12 on the last attempted iteration Another example... int temp = 0; int num = 1; while (num < 100) num += 2; System.out.println(num); temp = num; num = 5; num = temp; The following are loop invariants in the code segment above: num is always odd num < 102 num > 6 num > 0 (since num is greater than zero every time the computer is at the top of the loop, even on the last iteration) The following is not a loop invariant: num < 100 (since num is 101 on the last evaluation of the control expression when it evaluates to false) You will not be tested on any material below this sentence in the lecture notes. However, the information is useful for serious, advanced students. Objective #8: Use do while loops. AP students are not required to be able to write or evaluate do while loops on the AP exam. However they can be used in a student's answer on the Free Response section of the exam. As with a while loop, a do while loop does not necessarily iterate a specified number of times. However, it is guaranteed that a do while loop will iterate at least one time because its control expression is placed at the end of the loop. This loop is useful when you want to guarantee at least one iteration of the loop. Like a while loop, a do while loop is considered to be an indeterminate or indefinite loop. A do while loop is considered to be a bottom checking (or posttest) loop, since the control expression is located after the body of the loop after the while keyword. A do while loop is guaranteed to iterate at least once even if the control expression evaluates to FALSE. The do keyword is placed on a line of code by itself at the top of the loop. A block of statements follows it

10 with a control expression after the keyword while at the bottom of the loop do body statement(s) would be placed here while (control expression); The control expression must evaluate to TRUE in order for the do while loop to iterate after the first time. Like if statements and other kinds of loops, the curly braces are not required with a do while loop if there is only statement in the body of the loop. However, it is good style to always use curly braces. Example: do System.out.println("Enter a number (0 to quit): )"; user inputs a value for num here sum = sum + num; System.out.println("Current sum is " + sum); while (num!= 0 ); Don't forget to include the required semicolon after the control expression.