IPv6 Topology Mapping
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1 IPv6 Topology Mapping Robert Beverly *, Ram Durairajan, Justin Rohrer *, David Plonka Naval Postgraduate School University of Oregon Akamai April 20, 2018 R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
2 Background Context This talk: Really a bunch of slides for informal discussiom Planned IMC 2018 submission Looking for feedback/suggestions, especially on: Motivation Analysis/metrics/result interpretation R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
3 Background Problem What is the topology of the IPv6 Internet? Motivation: Understanding Internet topology is important (CDNs, security, resilience, diagnostics, research) IPv6 increasingly important (e.g., by metrics of traffic, enabled sites, edge deployment) But, do we have a good understanding of the IPv6 topology? R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
4 Background Prior Work State-of-the-art: CAIDA has been collecting IPv6 topology maps for 10 years Essentially replicates their IPv4 probing methodology For every IPv6 prefix in the global BGP table*: Use scamper (active measurement using ICMP6-Paris) Traceroute to ::1 in prefix Traceroute to random host in prefix Takes approximately 9 hours for < 100k targets (!) *March 5, 2018: probed 98,120 unique destinations; 1,782 destinations probed more than once (one probed six times) Coverage/Completeness/Efficiency of state-of-art IPv6 topology maps has not been evaluated R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
5 Background Prior Work State-of-the-art: CAIDA has been collecting IPv6 topology maps for 10 years Essentially replicates their IPv4 probing methodology For every IPv6 prefix in the global BGP table*: Use scamper (active measurement using ICMP6-Paris) Traceroute to ::1 in prefix Traceroute to random host in prefix Takes approximately 9 hours for < 100k targets (!) *March 5, 2018: probed 98,120 unique destinations; 1,782 destinations probed more than once (one probed six times) Coverage/Completeness/Efficiency of state-of-art IPv6 topology maps has not been evaluated R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
6 Background A different approach for IPv6? Strategies for increasing coverage: Probe more destinations Probe faster Select better destinations Probing faster: RFC4443, 2.1.1: an IPv6 node MUST limit the rate of ICMPv6 error messages it originates Assertion: Existing tools/techniques ill-suited to IPv6 active topology mapping R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
7 Background A different approach for IPv6? Strategies for increasing coverage: Probe more destinations Probe faster Select better destinations Probing faster: RFC4443, 2.1.1: an IPv6 node MUST limit the rate of ICMPv6 error messages it originates Assertion: Existing tools/techniques ill-suited to IPv6 active topology mapping R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
8 Background A different approach for IPv6? Our approach: 1 Explore use of recent randomized, high-speed active topology probing techniques (Yarrp) 2 Develop IPv6 version of Yarrp 3 Evaluate efficacy of various hitlists, targets, and protocols 4 Goal: Produce the most complete IPv6 topology currently available R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
9 Yarrp Yarrp: Yelling at Random Routers Progressively (IMC2016) Uses a block cipher to randomly permute the IP, TTL domain Is stateless, recovering necessary information from replies By randomly spreading probes, permits fast Internet-scale active topology probing (Runs > 300kpps, discovers > 0.5M ints in < 10min from single VP) Hypothesis: Yarrp-mapping of the IPv6 Internet will suffer less rate-limiting, even at higher probing rates R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
10 Yarrp Yarrp: Yelling at Random Routers Progressively (IMC2016) Uses a block cipher to randomly permute the IP, TTL domain Is stateless, recovering necessary information from replies By randomly spreading probes, permits fast Internet-scale active topology probing (Runs > 300kpps, discovers > 0.5M ints in < 10min from single VP) Hypothesis: Yarrp-mapping of the IPv6 Internet will suffer less rate-limiting, even at higher probing rates R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
11 Methodology Yarrp Features Update Lots of development since the 2016 IMC yarrp-0.1. yarrp-0.4: TCP (SYN or ACK), UDP, or ICMP probes IPv4/IPv6 Linux and BSD Fill mode Decoupled probing / receiving Biased probing Better usability / documentation R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
12 Methodology IPv6: Encoding State (new) RFC4443, 3.3: ICMP6 TTL exceeded quotation includes As much of invoking packet as possible without the ICMPv6 packet exceeding the minimum IPv6 MTU In contrast to IPv4 which only guarantees 28B quote Significantly simplifies encoding place in payload! R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
13 Methodology Yarrp6 IPv6: Encoding State Ver 16 Class Flow label Len P=x TTL Source IP = prober 32 Send TTL Send Elapsed Time (ms) Target IP Destination IP = target src_port = cksum(target) Fix cksum TTL Magic Elapsed Time fudge Maintain constant transport (TCP/UDP/ICMP) header fields Encode TTL, elapsed time in transport payload Use 2B of fudge to correct payload so that checksum is correct R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
14 Methodology Fill Mode Yarrp is stateless Must select TTL range (maxttl) (potentially missing hops) Don t know when to stop probing (potentially wasting probes) (can be beneficial, as we discover hops beyond gap limit) Fill mode For response to a probe with TTL=h, probe with TTL=h + 1 iff h maxttl. (not random, but uncommon and at path tail) Win/win efficiency gain: Allows us to lower the maxttl (less wasted probing), without missing hops. R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
15 Methodology SPECK SPECK Use SPECK lightweight block cipher Faster, and supports intermediate block lengths (e.g., 48 and 96 bits useful for IPv6-wide scanning) R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
16 Target Selection Methodology Methodology Must select IPv6 target addresses For 128-bit IPv6 address: How to choose prefix? (Upper 64 bits) How to host identifier? (Lower 64 bits) R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
17 Choosing prefixes Choosing prefixes Basic strategies Uniform: probe all possible prefixes (generally infeasible) Random: chose prefixes at random (IPv6 space is too sparse) BGP: Select prefixes in global BGP table (does not capture subnetting) Hitlists: Select prefixes based on hitlists (utility/comparison of hitlists has not been previously explored in literature) Generative: Build a model of how prefixes are allocated using seeds of known addresses, generate new candidate prefixes (has not been previously explored in literature) R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
18 Choosing prefixes Hitlists Name Size Method CAIDA 93,894 BGP-derived Fiebig 97,746 rdns Rapid7 196,012 fdns CDN Clients 372,930 Anonymous aggregates DNS-DB Varies Farsight 6gen Varies Generative Lots of recent work on IPv6 hitlist/target generation No work to compare/understand these hitlists! Note, many hitlists have many addresses within same /64 We reduce these to unique /48s (unlikely to produce interesting topology results) R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
19 Choosing prefixes Hitlists Fiebig Intuition: leverage rdns, i.e., IPv6 PTR records Recall, IPv6 PTR records are in the ip6.arpa namespace. Text hex nibbles separated by periods. e.g., c f ip6.arpa IN PTR ralph.rbeverly.net. Trick: recent DNS standard specifies that resolvers respond to partial PTR queries with: NXDOMAIN: no record and nothing under in the tree NOERROR: children in the tree Permits (efficient) enumeration of the namespace Assumes providers populate the portion of the ip6.arpa hierarchy they are authoritative for R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
20 Choosing prefixes Hitlists Rapid7 scans.io performs regular internet-wide IPv4 service scans (e.g., web servers) Hitlist generated from AAAA queries for all names discovered R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
21 Choosing prefixes Hitlists CDN clients Obtained in cooperation with Akamai Contains anonymous aggregates prefixes based on the IPv6 addresses of clients that query the Akamai CDN platform Grouped in prefix aggregates such that the prefix is more specific than the BGP prefix, but has enough clients within it so that they remain anonymous R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
22 Choosing prefixes Hitlists 6gen Murdock et al., IMC 2017: Target Generation for Internet-wide IPv6 Scanning Takes a set of input addresses (seed), attempts to learn the addressing structure Generates candidate addresses R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
23 Hitlists Methodology Choosing prefixes Coverage distribution comparison 1.0 Cumulative Fraction of Targets CAIDA Fiebig Rapid7-48 Rapid7-64 CDN-256 CDN Routed prefix index Figure: Cumulative targets per routed prefix R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
24 Hitlists Methodology Choosing prefixes Coverage distribution comparison 1.0 Cumulative Fraction of Targets CAIDA Fiebig Rapid7-48 Rapid7-64 CDN-256 CDN /48 subnet index Figure: Cumulative targets per routed /48 R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
25 Hitlists Methodology Choosing prefixes Coverage distribution comparison 1.0 Cumulative Fraction of Targets CAIDA Fiebig Rapid7-48 Rapid7-64 CDN-256 CDN /64 subnet index Figure: Cumulative targets per routed /64 R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
26 Choosing hosts Host identifier Explored two strategies Probe ::1 Probe 1234:5678:1234:5678 R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
27 Initial Results Initial Active IPv6 Probing Results Vantage Points: NPS UOregon Swiss IXP Probed: Different speeds Different hitlists Different prefixes/hosts Different protocols R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
28 Initial Results Benefit of randomization Probing rate (pps) scamper 20pps yarrp 20pps scamper 1000pps yarrp 1000pps scamper 2000pps yarrp 2000pps Probing rate (pps) scamper 20pps yarrp 20pps scamper 1000pps yarrp 1000pps scamper 2000pps yarrp 2000pps Fraction Responsive Fraction Responsive NPS Hop UOregon Same targets, same vantage point Yarrp outperforms scamper, especially near source Clearly some hops exhibit different rate-limiting behavior (lax-agg6-lax-hpr3-100g.cenic.net. and (3.be-1.uonet9-gw.uoregon.edu.)) Hop R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
29 Initial Results Different Router Behaviors Clearly some hops exhibit different rate-limiting behavior 3.be-1.uonet9-gw.uoregon.edu. Queried owner, is a Cisco ASR9000 It s going to be replaced with a Juniper MX10003 some time in the next month or so. We re not doing anything special beyond ACLs and Netflow sampling on those router interfaces R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
30 Initial Results Probe Type Probing rate (pps) ICMP 20pps UDP 20pps TCP_ACK 20pps 1 Probing rate (pps) ICMP 20pps UDP 20pps TCP_ACK 20pps Fraction Responsive Fraction Responsive Hop NPS Hop UOregon Take-away: Marginal difference; ICMP/UDP most innocuous R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
31 Host identifier Methodology Initial Results ICMP6 response types CDN type/code ::1 1234:5678 Fiebig Hop lim (98.1%) (98.1%) (95.8%) No route (0.7%) (0.7%) 2454 (0.6%) Adm prohib (0.6%) (0.6%) 1696 (0.4%) Addr unrch (0.3%) (0.4%) 2631 (0.7%) Port unrch 5250 (0.1%) 1045 (0.0%) 9084 (2.3%) Reject rte 2577 (0.1%) 6279 (0.2%) 818 (0.2%) R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
32 Initial Results Hitlist evaluation IPv6 Hitlist Topo Comparison (Ints) rapid7 fiebig IPv6 Hitlist Topo Comparison (Edges) rapid7 fiebig caida caida Take-away: Missing topology in state-of-the-art Hitlists are complementary R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
33 Initial Results Hitlist Power Unique Interfaces Fiebig Rapid7 CDN.k256 6gen.48 Random CAIDA Probes Again, very complementary behavior R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
34 Initial Results Subnetting CDF of Prefxes Unique paths discovered How many distinct paths to different targets within same routed prefix? Use as a basic proxy for amount of subnetting CAIDA Rapid7 Fiebig CDN R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
35 Initial Results Outstanding questions/work: How to best evaluate hitlists (counts, graph metrics, subnetting, etc)? Characterize discovered topology (ASes, edge/core, etc) Resolve aliases, determine how many new routers discovered Combining hitlists Creating the definitive topology-of-record for IPv6 R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
36 Initial Results R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
37 Backup Slides Path diameters Distribution of interfaces over all VPs Unique Interfaces Unique Interfaces IPv Trace TTL Trace Hop Limit IPv6 Interesting skew toward smaller diameters in IPv6 Likely due to tunneling (e.g., Hurricane Electric) And relative size of big IPv6 ASes R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
38 Backup Slides Biased Probability Unique Interfaces Trace TTL Given the distribution of routers vs. TTL Use different probability distributions to bias the search R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
39 Backup Slides Current Option Summary OPTIONS: -i, --input Input target file -o, --output Output file (default: output.yrp) -c, --count Probes to issue (default: unlimited) -t, --type Type: ICMP, TCP_SYN, TCP_ACK, UDP, ICMP6, UDP6, TCP6_SYN, TCP6_ACK (defau -r, --rate Scan rate in pps (default: 10) -m, --maxttl Maximum TTL (for ip input list only) -v, --verbose verbose (default: off) -F, --fillmode Fill mode maxttl (default: 0) -s, --sequential Scan sequentially (default: random) -n, --neighborhood Neighborhood TTL (default: 0) -b, --bgp BGP table (default: none) -S, --seed Seed (default: random) -p, --port Transport dst port (default: 80) -T, --test Don t send probes (default: off) -Q, --entire Entire IPv4/IPv6 Internet (default: off) -I, --interface Network interface (required for IPv6) -G, --dstmac MAC of gateway router (default: auto) -M, --srcmac MAC of probing host (default: auto) R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
40 Internet-Wide Probing Backup Slides Forming an IPv6 target 4b 44b 32b 2 cipher :: f(prefix) /48 Use 48-bit Speck block cipher First 4-bit nibble fixed (IANA allocation of 0x2) Add 44 bits of cipher to form /48 prefix to probe Lower 32 bits a deterministic function of /48 prefix Remaining 4 bits of cipher determine TTL (1-16) R. Beverly et al. (NPS/UOregon/Akamai) IPv6 Topology Mapping April 20, / 31
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