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1 6-1 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Computer Architecture and Organization Miles Murdocca and Vincent Heuring Chapter 6 Languages and the Machine
2 6-2 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Chapter Contents 6.1 The Compilation Process 6.2 The Assembly Process 6.3 Linking and Loading 6.4 Macros 6.5 Quantitative Analyses of Program Execution 6.6 From CISC to RISC 6.7 Pipelining the Datapath 6.8 Overlapping Register Windows 6.9 Low Power Coding
3 6-3 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine The Compilation Process Compilation translates a program written in a high level language into a functionally equivalent program in assembly language. Consider a simple high-level language assignment statement: A = B + 4; Steps involved in compiling this statement into assemby code: Reducing the program text to the basic symbols of the language (for example, into identifiers such as A and B), denotations such as the constant value 4, and program delimiters such as = and +. This portion of compilation is referred to as lexical analysis. Parsing symbols to recognize the underlying program structure. For the statement above, the parser must recognize the form: Identifier = Expression, where Expression is further parsed into the form: Identifier + Constant. Parsing is sometimes called syntactic analysis.
4 6-4 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine The Compilation Process Name analysis: associating the names A and B with particular program variables, and further associating them with particular memory locations where the variables are located at run time. Type analysis: determining the types of all data items. In the example above, variables A and B and constant 4 would be recognized as being of type int in some languages. Name and type analysis are sometimes referred to together as semantic analysis: determining the underlying meaning of program components. Action mapping and code generation: associating program statements with their appropriate assembly language sequence. In the statement above, the assembly language sequence might be as follows: ld [B], %r0, %r1 add %r1, 4, %r2 st %r2, %r0, [A]! Get variable B into a register.! Compute the value of the expression! Make the assignment.
5 6-5 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine The Assembly Process The process of translating an assembly language program into a machine language program is referred to as the assembly process. Production assemblers generally provide this support: Allow programmer to specify locations of data and code. Provide assembly-language mnemonics for all machine instructions and addressing modes, and translate valid assembly language statements into the equivalent machine language. Permit symbolic labels to represent addresses and constants. Provide a means for the programmer to specify the starting address of the program, if there is one; and provide a degree of assemble-time arithmetic. Include a mechanism that allows variables to be defined in one assembly language program and used in another, separately assembled program. Support macro expansion.
6 6-6 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Assembly Example We explore how the assembly process proceeds by hand assembling a simple ARC assembly language program.
7 6-7 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Instruction Formats and PSR Format for the ARC
8 6-8 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Assembled Code ld [x], %r ld [y], %r addcc %r1,%r2,%r st %r3, [z] jmpl %r15+4, %r
9 6-9 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Forward Referencing An example of forward referencing:
10 6-10 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine
11 6-11 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Assembled Program
12 6-12 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Linking: Using.global and.extern A.global is used in the module where a symbol is defined and a.extern is used in every other module that refers to it.
13 6-13 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Linking and Loading: Symbol Tables Symbol tables for the previous example:
14 6-14 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Example ARC Program
15 6-15 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Macro Definition A macro definition for push:
16 6-16 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Recursive Macro Expansion
17 6-17 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Instruction Frequency Frequency of occurrence of instruction types for a variety of languages. The percentages do not sum to 100 due to roundoff. (Adapted from Knuth, D. E., An Empirical Study of FORTRAN Programs, Software Practice and Experience, 1, , 1971.)
18 6-18 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Complexity of Assignments Percentages showing complexity of assignments and procedure calls. (Adapted from Tanenbaum, A., Structured Computer Organization, 4/e, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1999.)
19 6-19 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Speedup and Efficiency Speedup S is the ratio of the time needed to execute a program without an enhancement to the time required with an enhancement. Time T is computed as the instruction count IC times the number of cycles per instruction CPI times the cycle time τ. Substituting T into the speedup percentage calculation above yields:
20 6-20 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Example Example: Estimate the speedup obtained by replacing a CPU having an average CPI of 5 with another CPU having an average CPI of 3.5, with the clock period increased from 100 ns to 120 ns. The previous equation becomes:
21 6-21 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Four/Five-Stage Instruction Pipeline We used a five-step fetch-execute cycle earlier: (1) instruction fetch, (2) decode, (3) operand fetch, (4) ALU operation, (5) result writeback. These five phases can be thought of as only four phases in which the fourth phase, execute, has two subphases: ALU operation and writeback. A result writeback is not always needed and can be bypassed, thus the five phases are only four phases some of the time. For this discussion, we take a simple approach and force all instructions to go entirely through each phase whether or not that is actually needed, and so the ALU operation and writeback that are combined below will be implemented in five phases here.
22 6-22 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Pipeline Behavior Pipeline behavior during a memory reference and during a branch.
23 6-23 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Filling the Load Delay Slot SPARC code, (a) with a nop inserted, and (b) with srl migrated to nop position.
24 6-24 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Call-Return Behavior Call-return behavior as a function of nesting depth and time (Adapted from Stallings, W., Computer Organization and Architecture: Designing for Performance, 4/e, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 1996).
25 6-25 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine User view of RISC I registers. SPARC Registers
26 6-26 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Overlapping Register Windows
27 6-27 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Example: Compiled C Program Source code for C program to be compiled with gcc.
28 6-28 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine gcc Generated SPARC Code
29 6-29 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine gcc Generated SPARC Code (cont )
30 6-30 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Effect of Compiler Optimization SPARC code generated with the -O optimization flag:
31 6-31 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Low Power Coding Consider the ARC sequence shown below: ld [2096], %r16 ld [2100], %r17 ld [2104], %r18 ld [2108], %r19 The corresponding machine code is: (Continued on next slide)
32 6-32 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Low Power Coding (Continued) The total number of transitions for the code in the previous slide is eight. However, if we reorder the last two instructions, then the total number of transitions is reduced to only six: There are several other optimizations that can be made to code sequences based on choosing instructions and parameters from functionally equivalent possibilities in such a way that the number of transitions are reduced. (Continued on next slide)
33 6-33 Chapter 6 - Languages and the Machine Low Power Coding (continued) The use of a Gray code reduces the number of transitions in sequences of instructions, and in sequences of addresses:
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