Learning Image Alignment without Local Minima for Face Detection and Tracking

Transcription

1 Learnng Image Algnment wthout Local Mnma for Face Detecton and Trackng Mnh Hoa Nguyen Fernando De la Torre Robotcs Insttute, Carnege Mellon Unversty Pttsburgh, PA 15213, USA. Abstract Actve Appearance Models (AAMs) have been extensvely used for face algnment durng the last 20 years. Whle AAMs have numerous advantages relatve to alternate approaches, they suffer from two major drawbacks: () AAMs are especally prone to local mnma n the fttng process; () few f any of the local mnma of the cost functon correspond to acceptable solutons. To mnmze these problems, ths paper proposes a method to learn the fttng cost functon that explctly optmzes that the local mnma occur at and only at the places correspondng to the correct fttng parameters. The paper explores two methods to parameterze the cost functon: pxel weghtng and subspace learnng. Experments on synthetc and real data show the effectveness of our approach for face algnment. a PCA model algn Learned Model d b c e 1. Introducton Snce the early work of Srovch and Krby [23] parameterzng the human face usng Prncpal Component Analyss (PCA) and the successful egenfaces of Turk and Pentland [25], many computer vson researchers have used PCA technques to construct lnear models of optcal flow, shape or gray level [4 6, 8, 12, 13, 16, 21]. In partcular, Actve Appearance Models (AAMs) [8,12,13,19] have proven to be an approprate statstcal tool for modelng shape and appearance varaton of faces n mages. In AAMs, the appearance/shape models of objects are bult by performng PCA on tranng data. Once PCA model has been bult from tranng samples, fndng the locaton/confguraton of an object of nterest n a testng mage s acheved by mnmzng a cost functon w.r.t. some geometrc transformaton (moton) parameters; ths s referred to as the fttng process. Although wdely used, AAMs have two major problems n the fttng process. Frst, they are especally prone to local mnma. Second, often few, f any, of the local mnma of the cost functon correspond to acceptable solutons. f Fgure 1. Learnng a better model for mage algnment. a: Orgnal mage to algn (b,c): mean and egenvectors of the AAM. (d,f): surface and contour plot of the PCA model. It has many local mnma; (e, g): our method learns a better error surface for algnment. Ths fgure s best seen n color. Fgures 1d,f llustrate these problems. Fg. 1d plots the error surface constructed by translatng the testng mage (Fg. 1a) around the ground truth landmarks and computng the values of the cost functon. The cost functon measures the reconstructon error from the PCA model constructed from labeled tranng data. Fg. 1f shows the contour plot of ths error surface. As can be observed, any gradent-based optmzaton method s lkely to get stuck at local mnma, and wll not converge to the global mnmum. Moreover, g /08/$25.00 c 2008 IEEE

2 the global mnmum of ths cost functon s not at the desred poston, the black dot of Fg. 1d, whch corresponds to the correct landmarks locatons. These problems occur because the PCA model s constructed wthout consderng the neghborhood of the correct moton parameters (parameters that correspond to ground truth landmarks of tranng data). The neghborhoods determne the local mnma propertes of the error surface, and should be taken nto account whle constructng the models. In ths paper, we propose to learn the cost functon (.e. appearance model) that has a local mnmum at the expected locaton and no other local mnma n ts neghborhood. Ths s done by enforcng constrants on the gradents of the cost functon at the desred locaton and ts neghborhood. Fg. 1e,g plot the error surface and contours of the learned cost functon. Ths cost functon has a local mnmum n the expected place (black dot of Fg. 1e), and no other local mnma near by. 2. Prevous work Over the last decade, appearance models have become ncreasngly mportant n computer vson and graphcs. In partcular, Parameterzed Appearance Models (PAMs) have been proven useful for algnment, detecton, trackng, and face synthess [5, 6, 8, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, 26]. Ths secton revews PAMs and gradent-based methods for the effcent algnment of hgh dmensonal deformaton models Parameterzed Appearance Models (PAMs) PAMs [5, 6, 8, 12, 16, 21, 26] buld the objects appearance/shape representaton from the prncpal components of tranng data. Let d R m 1 (see notaton 1 ) be the th sample of a tranng set D R m n and U R m k the frst k prncpal components [15]. Once the model has been constructed (.e. U s known), trackng/algnment s acheved by fndng the moton parameter p that best algns the data w.r.t. the subspace U,.e. mn c,p d(f(x,p)) Uc 2 2 (1) Here x = [x 1, y 1,...x l, y l ] T s the vector contanng the coordnates of the pxels to track. f(x, p) s the functon for geometrc transformaton; denote f(x, p) by [u 1, v 1,..., u l, v l ] T. d s the mage frame n consderaton, 1 Bold uppercase letters denote matrces (e.g. D), bold lowercase letters denote column vectors (e.g. d). d j represents the j th column of the matrx D. d j denotes the scalar n the row th and column j th of the matrx D. Non-bold letters represent scalar varables. 1 k R k 1 s a column vector of ones. 0 k R k 1 s a column vector of zeros. I k R k k s the dentty matrx. tr(d) = d s the trace of square matrx D. d 2 = d T d desgnates Eucldean norm of d. D F = tr(d T D) s the Frobenous norm of D. dag( ) s the operator that extracts the dagonal of a square matrx or constructs a dagonal matrx from a vector. and d(f(x,p)) s the appearance vector of whch the th entry s the ntensty of mage d at pxel (u, v ). For affne and non-rgd transformatons, (u, v ) relates to (x, y ) by: [ u v ] = [ a1 a 2 a 4 a 5 ] [ x s y s ] + [ a3 a 6 ] wth [x s 1, ys 1,...xs l, ys l ]T = x + U s c s, where U s s the nonrgd shape model learned by performng PCA on a set of regstered shapes [7]. a,c s are affne and non-rgd moton parameters respectvely, and p = [a;c s ] Optmzaton for PAMs Gven an mage d, PAM trackng/algnment algorthms optmze (1). Due to the hgh dmensonalty of the moton space, a standard approach to effcently search over the parameter space s to use gradent-based methods [1,5,7,9,19, 27]. To compute the gradent of the cost functon gven n (1), t s common to use Taylor seres expanson to approxmate d(f(x,p + δp)) by d(f(x,p)) + J d (p)δp, where J d (p) = d(f(x,p)) s the Jacoban of the mage d w.r.t. to the moton parameter p [18]. Once lnearzed, a standard approach s to use the Gauss-Newton method for optmzaton [3, 5]. Other approaches learn an approxmaton of the Jacoban matrx wth lnear [7] or non-lnear [17,22] regresson. Over the last few years, several strateges for mprovng the fttng performance have been proposed. For examples, Black & Anandan [5] and Cootes & Taylor [7] proposed usng mult-resoluton schemes, Xao et al [29] proposed usng 3D models to constran 2D solutons, De la Torre et al [10] proposed learnng flters to buld a mult-band representaton that proven to acheve robustness to local mnma n AAM fttng. Baker et al. [2] learned a PCA model nvarant to rgd and non-rgd transformatons to mprove the PCA model. De la Torre and Nguyen [11] learned a non-lnear PCA model nvarantly to non-rgd transformatons that s less prone to local mnma. Recently, Wu et al [28] propose avodng local mnma n dscrmnatve fttng of appearance models by learnng boostng wth ranked functons. Although these methods show sgnfcant performance mprovement, they do not drectly address the problem of learnng a cost functon wth no local mnma to ft AAMs. In ths paper, we delberately learn a cost functon whch has local mnma at and only at the desred places. 3. Learnng parameters of the cost functons Gradent-based algorthms, such as the ones dscussed n the prevous secton, mght not converge to the correct locaton (.e. correct moton parameters) for several reasons. Frst, gradent-based methods are susceptble to beng stuck at local mnma. Second, even when the optmzer converges to a global mnmum, the global mnmum mght (2)

3 not correspond to the correct moton parameters. These two problems occur prmarly because PCA has lmted generalzaton capabltes to model appearance varaton. Ths secton proposes a method to learn cost functons that do not exhbt these two problems n tranng data A generc cost functon for algnment Ths secton proposes a generc quadratc error functon where many PAMs can be cast. The quadratc error functon has the form: E(d,p) = d(f(x,p)) T Ad(f(x,p)) + 2b T d(f(x,p)) (3) Here A R m m and b R m 1 are the fxed parameters of the functon, and A s symmetrc. Ths functon s the general form of many cost functons used n the lterature ncludng Actve Appearance Models [8], Egentrackng [5], and template trackng [18, 20]. For nstance, consder the cost functon gven n (1). If p s fxed, the optmal c that mnmzes (1) can be obtaned usng c = U T d(f(x,p)). Substtutng ths back nto (1) and performng some basc algebra, (1) s equvalent to: mn p d(f(x,p)) T (I m UU T )d(f(x,p)). Thus (1) s a specal case of (3), wth A = I m UU T, and b = 0 m. For template trackng, the cost functon s typcally the sum of squared dfferences: d(f(x,p)) d ref 2 2, where d ref s the reference template. Ths cost functon s equvalent to: d(f(x,p)) T d(f(x,p)) 2d T refd(f(x,p)). Thus the cost functon used n template trackng s also a specal case of (3) wth A = I m and b = d ref Desred propertes of cost functons As dscussed prevously, t s desrable that the cost functon have mnma at and only at the rght places. In ths secton, we delberately address ths need as an optmzaton problem over A and b. Let {d } n 1 be a set of tranng mages contanng the objects of nterest (e.g. faces), and assume the landmarks for the object shapes are avalable (e.g. manually labeled facal landmarks as n Fg. 5a). Let s be the vector contanng the landmark coordnates of mage d. Gven {s } n 1, we perform Procrustes analyss [7] and buld the shape model as follows. Frst, the mean shape s = 1 n s s calculated. Second, we compute a the affne parameter that best transforms s to s, and let a 1 be the nverse affne transformaton of a. Thrd, ŝ s obtaned by applyng the nverse affne transformaton a 1 on s (warpng toward the mean shape). Next, we perform PCA on {ŝ s} n =1 to construct U s, a bass for non-rgd shape varaton. We then compute c s, the coeffcents of ŝ s w.r.t. the the bass U s. Fnally, let p = [a ;c s ], p s the parameter of mage d w.r.t. to our shape model. Notably, the shape model and {p } n 1 are derved ndependently of the appearance model. Fgure 2. Neghborhoods around the ground truth moton parameter p (ret dot). N : regon nsde the orange crcle; t s satsfactory for fttng algorthms to converge to ths regon. N + : regon outsde the blue crcle; algnment algorthm wll not be ntalzed n ths regon. N : shaded regon, regon to enforce constrants on gradents. The appearance model (.e. the cost functon E(d, p) ) s what needs to be learned. For E(d,p) to have a local mnmum at the rght place, p must be a local mnmum of E(d,p). Theoretcally, ths requres E(d,p) to vansh,.e. p E(d,p) = 0 (4) p To learn a cost functon that has few local mnma, t s necessary to consder p s neghborhoods. Let N = {p : lb p p 2 ub}, N = {p : p p 2 < lb}, N + = {p : p p 2 > ub}. Here lb s chosen such that N s a set of neghbor parameters that are very close to p ; t s satsfactory for a fttng algorthm to converge to a pont n N. ub s chosen so that the fttng algorthm s guaranteed to be ntalzed at a pont n N or N. In most applcatons, such ub exsts. For example, for trackng problems, ub can be set to the maxmum movement of the object beng tracked between two consecutve frames. Fg. 2 depcts the relatonshp between N, N, andn +. For a gradent descent algorthm to converge to p or a pont close enough to p, t s necessary that E(d,.) have no local mnma n N. Ths mples that E(d,p) does not vansh for p N. Notably, t s not necessary to enforce smlar constrants for p N N + because of the way lb, ub are chosen. Another desrable property s that each teraton of gradent descent advances closer to the correct poston. Because gradent descent walks aganst the gradent drecton at every teraton, we would lke the opposte drecton of the gradent at pont p N to be smlar to the optmal walkng drecton p p. Ths quantty can be measured as the projecton of the walkng drecton onto the optmal drecton. Fg. 3 llustrates the ratonale of ths

4 To address ths concern, we consder an alternatve optmzaton strategy where the update rule at teraton k th s: p k+1 = p k + d (p k ) (7) ( wth d (p k ) = 1 ) T 2 Hd (p k ) 1 E(d, p) H d (p k ) = J d (p k ) T J d (p k ) p k Fgure 3. p : desred convergence locaton. Blue arrows: gradent vectors, red arrows: walkng drectons of gradent descent algorthm, orange arrows: optmal drectons to the desred locaton. Performng gradent descent at p advances closer to p whle performng gradent descent at p moves away from p. requrement. Ths requrement leads to the constrants: ( ) T E(d,p) p p, > 0 p N (5) p p 2 Equatons (4) and (5) specfy the constrants for the deal cost functon. The gradent of the functon E(d,p) plays a fundamental role n the above two constrants. To compute the gradent E(d,p), t s common to use frst order Taylor seres expanson to approxmate d(f(x,p + δp)) by d(f(x,p)) + J d (p)δp, where J d (p) = d(f(x,p)) s the spatal ntensty gradent of the mage d w.r.t. to the moton parameter p [18]. Ths yelds: ( ) T E(d,p) 2(J d (p)) T (Ad(f(x,p)) + b) (6) Substtutng (6) nto (4) and (5), we obtan a set of lnear constrants over A and b Practcal ssues and alternatve fttng methods In practce, there s an ssue regardng the optmzaton usng steepest gradent descent: the small components of E(d,p) tend to be neglected n the optmzaton. Ths occurs due to the magntude dfference between some columns of J d (p). For example, n (2), the magntudes of the Jacobans of d(f(x,p)) w.r.t. to a 1, a 2, a 4, a 5 can be much larger than the magntudes of the Jacobans of d(f(x,p)) w.r.t. to a 3, a 6. The update rule of the above algorthm s a varant of Newton teraton. Intutvely, H d (p k ) s smlar to the Hessan of E(d,p) at p k, and t acts as a normalzaton matrx for the gradent. Ths algorthm s ndeed a reasonable optmzaton scheme for cost functons n whch A s symmetrc postve semdefnte wth all egenvalues less than or equal to 1. For the nterest of space, we omt the proof n ths paper. Smlar to the case of gradent descent, requrng the ncremental updates to vansh at only at the places correspondng to acceptable solutons yelds the followng constrants: d (p ) = 0 (8) p d p (p), > 0, p N. (9) p p 2 However, these constrants mght be too strngent. Therefore, we propose to relax the constrants to get the optmzaton problem: 1 d (p ) C ξ 2 (10) p s.t. d p (p), > ξ, p N p p 2 mn A,b,ξ ξ 0. Here d (p ) s requred to be small nstead of strctly zero, ξ s are slack varables for constrants n (9) whch allows for penalzed constrant volaton. C s the parameter controllng the trade-off between havng few local mnma and havng local mnma at the rght places. A s also constraned to be a symmetrc postve semdefnte matrx where egenvalues are less than or equal one. Addng ths constrant to the optmzaton problem and ncorporatng the dea of margn, we obtan: 1 d (p ) C ξ (11) p s.t. d p (p), M ξ, p N p p 2 mn A,b,ξ ξ 0 & A H m, where H m denotes the set of all m m symmetrc matrces of whch all egenvalues are non-negatve and less than

5 or equal to one. M s the user-defned margn sze. Snce d (p) s lnear n terms of A and b, ths s a quadratc programmng problem wth lnear constrants, provded the requrement A H m can be descrbed by lnear constrants. 4. Specal cases and experments a b Sec. 3.3 proposes a method for learnng generc A and b. However, n specfc stuatons, A and b can be further parameterzed. The benefts of further parameterzaton are threefold. Frst, the number of parameters to learn can be reduced. Second, the relatonshp between A and b can be establshed. Thrd, the constrant that A H m can be replaced by a set of lnear constrants. Ths secton provdes the formulaton for two specal cases, namely weghted template algnment and weghted-bass AAM algnment. Expermental results on Mult-PIE database [14] are ncluded. Ths database conssts of facal mages of 337 subjects taken under dfferent llumnatons, expressons and poses. Each face s manually labeled wth 68 landmarks, as shown n Fg. 5a. Images are down sampled to pxels Weghted template algnment As shown n Sec. 3.1, template algnment s a specal case of (3) n whch A = I m, and b = d ref. In template algnment, pxels of the template are typcally weghed equally. In ths secton, we show to how to learn the optmal pxel weghtng to avod local mnma n mage algnment. In partcular, we llustrate results for face algnment. Consder the weghted sum of squared dfferences: (d(f(x,p)) d ref ) T dag(w)(d(f(x,p)) d ref ), where, w s the weght vector for the template s pxels. Ths cost functon s equvalent to (3) wth A = dag(w) and b = dag(w)d ref. The constrant A H m can be mposed by requrng 0 w 1. Thus (11) becomes a quadratc programmng problem wth lnear constrants over w. For ths experment, we only use drectly-llumnated frontal neutral faces. Each subject n the Mult-PIE database mght have more than one mage. However, to ensure the testng data s completely ndependent of the tranng data, we restrct our attenton to at most one mage per subject. Our dataset contans 217 mages, 10 are selected for tranng, 65 are used for valdaton (parameter tunng), and the rest are reserved for testng. The shape model s bult as descrbed n Sec The fnal shape model requres 6 coeffcents (only affne transformaton) to descrbe a shape. For object appearance, we extract ntensty values of pxels nsde the regon formed by the landmarks (Fg. 5c). The template s taken to be the mean mage of all mages (Fg. 4a). Thus the task s to do template algnment Fgure 4. (a) the template (mean mage) used n weghted template experment. (b) the learned weghts, brghter pxels mean hgher weghts. Interestngly, the eye and mouth regons do not receve hgh weghts. Table 1. Algnment results of dfferent methods for three dfferent dffculty levels of testng data (PerMag). Intal s the ntal amount of perturbaton before runnng any algnment algorthm. Best s the best result can be acheved by usng affne transformaton. Default s the method whch gve unform weghts for the pxels. The table shows the means and standard devatons of msalgnment (average over 68 landmarks and over testng data). The unt for measurement s pxel. PerMag Intal 0.99± ± ±0.68 Best 0.60± ± ±0.18 Default 1.13± ± ±2.72 Ours 0.98± ± ±0.82 between an arbtrary mage wth the mean mage. The template s weghts are learned by optmzng (11) wth the followng parameter settngs: M = 0.01, C = 1. To avod N beng of nfnte sze, we restrct our attenton to a set of 150 random samples from N. The random samples are drawn by ntroducng random Gaussan perturbaton to the correct shape parameter p. Fg. 4b dsplays the learned weghts; brght pxels mean hgher weghts. Notably, the pxels n the eye and mouth regons do not actually receve hgh weghts. Ths s consstent wth the ntuton that cost functon usng hgh weghts n area wth hgh varablty are more susceptble to local mnma. Testng data are generated by randomly perturbng the components of p, the correct shape parameters of test mage d. Perturbaton amounts are generated from a zero mean Gaussan dstrbuton wth standard devaton PerMag [ ] T. PerMag controls the overall dffculty of the testng data. The relatve perturbaton amounts of shape coeffcents are determned to smulate possble moton n trackng. Fg. 5b shows an example of shape perturbaton, the ground truth landmarks are marked n red (crcles), whle the perturbed shape s shown n yellow (pluses). Table 1 descrbes the expermental results wth three dffculty levels of testng data (controlled by P erm ag). The performance of the learned cost functon s compared wth the default (unform weght) cost functon. The results show

6 a b c d Fgure 5. (a) example of landmarks assocated wth each face (red dots), (b) example of shape dstorton (yellow pluses), (c) example of patches for appearance modelng. that the learned cost functon outperforms the default functon n all levels of perturbaton Weghted-bass for AAM algnment As shown n Sec. 3.1, AAM algnment s a specal case of (3) n whcha = I m UU T = I m k 1 u u T, andb = 0. U s the set of k frst egenvectors from the total of K PCA bass of the tranng data subspace. k ( K) s usually chosen expermentally. In ths secton, we propose to use all K egenvectors, but wegh them dfferently. Specfcally, we learn A whch has the form: A = I m K 1 λ u u T. To ensure that A H m, we requre 0 λ 1. Let w = [λ T b T ] T. Substtutng ths nto (11) we get a quadratc programmng problem wth lnear constrants over w. From the Mult-PIE database, we only make use of the drectly-llumnated frontal face mages under fve expressons (smle, dsgust, squnt, surprse and scream). Our dataset contans 1100 mages, 400 are selected for tranng, 200 are used for valdaton (parameter tunng), and the rest are reserved for testng. The shape model s bult as descrbed n Sec The fnal shape model requres 10 coeffcents (6 affne + 4 nonrgd) to descrbe a shape. For object appearance, we extract ntensty values of pxels nsde the patches located at the landmarks (Fg. 5d). The tranng data s further dvded nto two subsets, one contans 300 mages and the other contans 100 mages. U s obtaned by performng PCA on the subset of 300 mages. The second subset s used to set up the optmzaton problem (11). For better generalzaton, (11) s constructed wthout usng mages n the frst tranng subset. To avod N beng of nfnte sze, we restrct our attenton to a set of 200 random samples from N. The random samples are drawn by ntroducng random Gaussan perturbaton to the correct shape parameter p. Followng the approach by Tsochantarsds et al [24] for mnmzng a quadratc functon wth an exponentally large number of lnear constrants, we mantan a smaller subset of actve constrants S and optmze (11) teratvely. We repeat the followng steps for 10 teratons: () empty S; () randomly choose 20 tranng mages; () for each chosen Table 2. Algnment results of dfferent methods for four dfferent dffculty levels of testng data (PerMag). Intal s the ntal amount of perturbaton before runnng any algnment algorthm. PCA e% s the cost functon constructed usng PCA preservng e% of energy. The table shows the means and standard devatons of ms-algnment (average over 68 landmarks and over testng data). The unt for measurement s pxel. PerMag Intal 0.75± ± ± ±.54 PCA 100% 0.37± ± ± ±.51 PCA 90% 0.36± ± ± ±.65 PCA 80% 0.40± ± ± ±.50 PCA 70% 0.41± ± ± ±.46 Ours 0.37± ± ± ±.39 tranng mage d, fnd the 100 most volated constrants from N and nclude them n S; (v) run quadratc programmng wth the reduced set of constrants. Smlar to the case of weghted template algnment, testng data are generated by randomly perturbng the components of p, the correct shape parameters of test mage d. Perturbaton amounts are generated from a zero mean Gaussan dstrbuton wth standard devaton P erm ag [ ] T. Table 2 descrbes the expermental results wth four dffculty levels of testng data (controlled by P erm ag). The performance of the learned cost functon s compared wth four other cost functons constructed usng PCA wth popular energy settngs (70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%). As can be observed, when the amount of perturbaton s small, PCA models wth hgher energy levels perform better. However, as the amount of pertubaton ncreases, PCA models wth lower energy levels perform better. Ths suggests that cost functons usng fewer bass vectors have less local mnma whle cost functons usng more bass vectors are more lkely to have local mnma at the rght places. Thus t s unclear what the energy for the PCA model should be. On the other hand, the learned cost functon performs sgnfcantly better than the PCA models for most dffculty levels. Because the magntude of b s related to the senstvty of the algnment algorthm, we add a regularzaton term 0.1 b 2 2 nto the objectve functon of ( 11) to regulateb to be small. The values of other parameters C = 2, M = 0.01 are tuned usng the valdaton set. 5. Concluson In ths paper, we have proposed a method to learn a cost functon for mage algnment that avods local mnma n tranng. We drectly address the problem of learnng cost functons that have local mnma at and only at the desred places. The task of learnng a cost functon s formulated as optmzng a quadratc functon under lnear constrants.

7 Encouragng results have been acheved for face algnment wth template matchng and AAM fttng. Further work needs to address how to select the most nformatve samples n the error surface to reduce the number of constrants to optmze. Acknowledgments: Ths materal s based upon work supported by the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory under Contract No. N C-2040 and Natonal Insttute of Health Grant R01 MH Any opnons, fndngs and conclusons or recommendatons expressed n ths materal are those of the authors and do not necessarly reflect the vews of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. References [1] S. Baker and I. Matthews. Lucas-Kanade 20 years on: a unfyng framework. Internatonal Journal of Computer Vson, 56(3): , March [2] S. Baker, I. Matthews, and J. Schneder. Automatc constructon of actve appearance models as an mage codng problem. IEEE Transactons on Pattern Analyss and Machne Intellgence, 26(10): , October [3] J. R. Bergen, P. Anandan, K. J. Hanna, and R. Hngoran. Herarchcal model-based moton estmaton. European Conference on Computer Vson, pages , [4] M. J. Black, D. J. Fleet, and Y. Yacoob. Robustly estmatng changes n mage appearance. Computer Vson and Image Understandng, 78(1):8 31, [5] M. J. Black and A. D. Jepson. Egentrackng: Robust matchng and trackng of objects usng vew-based representaton. Internatonal Journal of Computer Vson, 26(1):63 84, [6] V. Blanz and T. Vetter. A morphable model for the synthess of 3D faces. In ACM SIGGRAPH, [7] T. Cootes and C. Taylor. Statstcal models of appearance for computer vson. Techncal report, Unversty of Manchester., [8] T. F. Cootes, G. J. Edwards, and C. J. Taylor. Actve appearance models. In European Conference Computer Vson, pages , [9] F. de la Torre and M. J. Black. Robust parameterzed component analyss: theory and applcatons to 2D facal appearance models. Computer Vson and Image Understandng, 91:53 71, [10] F. de la Torre, A. Collet, J. Cohn, and T. Kanade. Fltered component analyss to ncrease robustness to local mnma n appearance models. In submtted to Internatonal Conference on Computer Vson and Pattern Recognton, [11] F. De la Torre and M. H. Nguyen. Parameterzed kernel prncpal component analyss: Theory and applcatons to supervsed and unsupervsed mage algnment. In Proceedngs of IEEE Conference on Computer Vson and Pattern Recognton, [12] F. de la Torre, J. Vtrà, P. Radeva, and J. Melenchón. Egenflterng for flexble egentrackng. In Internatonal Conference on Pattern Recognton, pages , [13] S. Gong, S. Mckenna, and A. Psarrou. Dynamc Vson: From Images to Face Recognton. Imperal College Press, [14] R. Gross, I. Matthews, J. Cohn, T. Kanade, and S. Baker. The CMU mult-pose, llumnaton, and expresson (Mult-PIE) face database. Techncal report, Robotcs Insttute, Carnege Mellon Unversty, TR [15] I. Jollffe. Prncpal Component Analyss. Sprnger-Verlag, New York, [16] M. J. Jones and T. Poggo. Multdmensonal morphable models. In Internatonal Conference on Computer Vson, pages , [17] X. Lu. Generc face algnment usng boosted appearance model. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vson and Pattern Recognton, [18] B. Lucas and T. Kanade. An teratve mage regstraton technque wth an applcaton to stereo vson. In Proceedngs of Imagng Understandng Workshop, [19] I. Matthews and S. Baker. Actve appearance models revsted. Internatonal Journal of Computer Vson, 60(2): , Nov [20] I. Matthews, T. Ishkawa, and S. Baker. The template update problem. IEEE Transactons on Pattern Analyss and Machne Intellgence, 26: , [21] S. K. Nayar and T. Poggo. Early Vsual Learnng. Oxford Unversty Press, [22] J. Saragh and R. Goecke. A nonlnear dscrmnatve approach to AAM fttng. In Internatonal Conference on Computer Vson, [23] L. Srovch and M. Krby. Low-dmensonal procedure for the characterzaton of human faces. Journal of the Optcal Socety of Amerca A: Optcs, Image Scence, and Vson, 4(3): , March [24] I. Tsochantards, T. Joachms, T. Hofmann, and Y. Altun. Large margn methods for structured and nterdependent output varables. Journal of Machne Learnng Research, 6: , [25] M. Turk and A. Pentland. Egenfaces for recognton. Journal Cogntve Neuroscence, 3(1):71 86, [26] T.Vetter. Learnng novel vews to a sngle face mage. In Internatonal Conference on Automatc Face and Gesture Recognton, pages 22 27, [27] M. Wmmer, F. Stulp, S. J. Tschechne, and B. Radg. Learnng robust objectve functons for model fttng n mage understandng applcatons. In Proceedngs of Brtsh Machne Vson Conference, [28] H. Wu, X. Lu, and G. Doretto. Face algnment va boosted rankng model. In Proceedngs of IEEE Conference on Computer Vson and Pattern Recognton, [29] J. Xao, S. Baker, I. Matthews, and T. Kanade. Real-tme combned 2D+3D actve appearance models. In Conference on Computer Vson and Pattern Recognton, volume II, pages , 2004.