Important Full Form of Programming Languages

Transcription

1 Important Full Form of Programming Languages BASIC - Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code COBOL - Common Business Oriented Language FORTRAN - FORmula TRANslation ALGOL - ALGOrithmic Language PROLOG - PROgramming in LOGic HTML - Hyper Text Markup Language XML - extensible Markup Language CSS - Cascading Style Sheet JS - JavaScript PHP - Hypertext Preprocessor VBS - Visual Basic Scripting Language ASP - Active Server Pages JSP - Java Server Pages AJAX - Asynchronous JavaScript And XML PERL - Practical Extraction and Reporting Language LISP - LISt Processing J2EE - Java 2 Platform Enterprise Edition SQL - Structured Query Language XSL - EXtensible Stylesheet Language ADO -Active Data Object 1

2 VFP Visual FoxPro imac - internet MACintosh CFML - cold fusion markup language SAP - System Analysis and Programming BCPL - basic combined programming language ORACLE -Oak Ridge Analytical and Common Logical Engine MS WINDOWS -MicroSoft Wide Interactive Networking Development for Office Work Solutions Full Forms for Information Technology Related Terms: COMPUTER - Common Operating Machine Particularly Used for Trade, Education, and Research SMS - System Management Server ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator PIN - Personal Identification Number ISP - Internet Service Provider IT - Information Technology WWW - World Wide Web (sometimes call W3) WWW - World Wide Wait - slang VIP - Vines Internet Protocol ASP - Active Server Page ASP - Application Service Provider 3D - Three Dimensional INS - Internet communication Settings 2

3 CAD - Computer Aided Design ECS - Enhanced Chip Set FAQ - Frequently Asked Questions (files often found on BBS and Internet) DOS - Disk Operating System POP - Power On Password POP - Post Office Protocol (how PCs get from internet) POP - Point Of Presence (internet and WWW terminology for location of server) STP - Shielded Twisted Pair FORTRAN - Formula Translation language (programming language) MODEM - Modulate / Demodulate NCC - Network Control Center IC - Integrated Circuit IP - Internet Protocol UID - User Identification (internet- intranet- and server login accesses) IRDA - Infrared Data Association CLASS - Compiled java program- often used as class extension NIC - Network Interface Card PC - Personal Computer RAS - Remote Access Server / Service CD-ROM - Compact Disk - Read Only Memory PPP - Point to Point Protocol ARPANET - Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (the beginning of the internet) 3

4 EEPROM -Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory RDBMS - Relational Data Base Management System MPEG - Motion Picture Experts Group (file extension MPG) PVC - Permanent Virtual Circuits ASAP - Application Assessment And Planning package (Lotus migration application) CPU - Central Processing Unit SSI - Server Side Includes (web technology that allows for dynamic data exchange in web pages) CMYK - Cyan- Magenta- Yellow- black COBOL - Common Business Oriented Language (programming language) ID - Internal Device BOSS - Business Organizer Scheduling System (one of the original hand-held organizers) HCL - Hardware Compatibility List (what hardware works with Windows 95- a text file) FCI - Flux Changes per Inch (drive tech terminology) MIS - Management Information Systems MIS - Multimedia Information Sources APL - Automatic Programming Language DTP - Desk-Top Publishing SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol IPC - Inter-Processes Communications PDC - Primary Domain Controller SFC - System File Checker (command line program found with Windows XP) HD - Hard Disk 2 High Density (type of disk format) 4

5 PCI - Personal Computer Interface PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect CPS - Clusters Per Sector (depends on the OS- AND the size of the disk partition) CPS - Characters Per Second DBMS - DataBase Management System CHAT - Conversational Hypertext Access Technology (""talking"" in real time over the internet)" DVD - Digital Video Disk DOC - DOCument (file format extension used by word processors such as MS Word) DOC - A word processing DOCument file extension Often used by MS Word CCS - Common Command Set (instructions for SCSI interface) LCD - Liquid Crystal Display (often found on laptops) POS - Point Of Sale (the scanners you see in supermarkets) TM - Text Message TM - Test Mode (modem diagnostics) URL - Uniform Resource Locator IBM - International Business Machines EMS - Expanded Memory Specification (LIM Lotus / Intel / Microsoft) CDR - A Graphics File extension- often used by Corel Draw RDO - Remote Data Objects VBA - Visual Basic for Applications (programming language bundled with MS Office- can include ActiveX- not a full VB compiler- but can edit macros and commands) AT - Asynchronous Transmission 5

6 AT - Advanced Technology FTP - File Transfer Protocol GPF - General Protection Fault (A window error message that occurs when a program crashes) SSA - Serial Storage Architecture (another communications port setup (like SCSI) that has fast data transfer but requires high demands of DMA channels) GP - General Purpose VGA - Video Graphics Adapter ISM - Information Services Manager SRC - Sample Rate Conversion PDP - Plasma Display Panel (laptops) ODBC - Open DataBase Connectivity (2 Components) (Microsofts shared data connections) ICA - Independent Computing Architecture EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (re-programmable ROM chips) DD - Double Density (type of disk format - more than single density- less than High Density) SIT - Stuff-It (compressed file extension for Macintosh computers) EULA - End User License Agreement HP - Hewlett Packard ADC - Advanced Data Connector (database caching w/iis server) DB - DataBase DB - decibel ED - External Device W3C - World Wide Web Consortium MCSE - Microsoft Certified System Engineer 6

7 The five generations programming language of computer:- 1. The first generation languages, or 1GL, are low-level languages that are machine language. 2. The second-generation languages, or 2GL, are also low-level assembly languages. They are sometimes used in kernels and hardware drives, but more commonly used for video editing and video games. 3. The third-generation languages, or 3GL, are high-level languages, such as C, C++, Java, JavaScript, and Visual Basic. 4. The fourth-generation languages, or 4GL, are languages that consist of statements similar to statements in a human language. Fourth generation languages are commonly used in database programming and scripts examples include Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, and SQL. 5. The fifth-generation languages, or 5GL, are programming languages that contain visual tools to help develop a program. Examples of fifth generation languages include Mercury, OPS5, and Prolog : First Generation Vacuum These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. These first generation computers relied on machine language : Second Generation Transistors The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second generation of computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors weren t used significantly in computers until the end of the 1950s : Third Generation Integrated Circuits Transistors were now being miniaturized and put on silicon chips (called semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of these machines. These were the first computers where users interacted using keyboards and monitors which interfaced with an operating system, a significant leap up from the punch cards and printouts. This enabled these machines to run several applications at once using a central program which functioned to monitor memory : Fourth Generation Microprocessor The chip-maker developed the Intel 4004 chip in 1971, which positioned all computer components (CPU, memory, input/output controls) onto a single chip. 7

8 The Intel chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The year 1981 saw the rst ever computer (IBM) specially designed for home use and 1984 saw the MacIntosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even moved beyond the realm of computers and into an increasing number of everyday products. Other major advances during this period have been the Graphical user interface (GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding advances in lap-top capability and hand-held device : Fifth Generation Artificial Intelligence Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development, but some of these technologies are beginning to emerge and be used such as voice recognition. AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductor. Computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation, molecular and nano technology. Microsoft Windows Operating Systems for PCs:- MS-Dos Microsoft Disk Operating System (1981) Originally developed by Microsoft for IBM, MS-DOS was the standard operating system for IBM-compatible personal computers. The initial version of DOS were very simple and resembled another operating system called CP/M. Windows ( ) Introduced in 1985, Microsoft Windows 1.0 was named due to the computing boxes. Windows 1.0 allowed users to point and click to access the windows. In 1987 Microsoft released Windows 2.0, which was designed for the designed for the Intel 286 processor. This version added desktop icons, keyboard shortcuts and improved graphics support. Windows ( ) Windows 3.0 was released in May, 1900 offering better icons, Performance and advanced graphics with 16 colors designed for Intel 386 processors. Microsoft released Windows 3.1 in Windows 95 (August 1995) It supports 32-bit applications, which means that applications written specifically for this operating system should run much faster. 8

9 This has meant removal of many of the old DOS limitations, such as 640K of main memory and 8-character filenames. Other important features in this operating system are the ability to automatically detect and configure installed hardware (plug and play). Windows 98 (June 1998) Windows 98 offers support for a number of new technologies, including FAT32, AGP, MMX, USB, DVD, and ACPI. Its most visible feature, though, is the Active Desktop, which integrates the Web browser (Internet Explorer) with the operating system. Windows ME - Millennium Edition (September 2000) The Windows Millennium Edition, called "Windows Me" was an update to the Windows 98 core and included some features of the Windows 2000 operating system. This version also removed the "boot in DOS" option. Windows NT ( ) Windows NT (New Technology) is a 32-bit operating system that supports preemptive multitasking. There are actually two versions of Windows NT: Windows NT Server, designed to act as a server in networks, and Windows NT Workstation for stand-alone or client workstations. Windows 2000 (February 2000) Microsoft released four versions of Windows 2000: Professional (for business desktop and laptop systems), Server (both a Web server and an office server), Advanced Server (for line-of-business applications) and Datacenter Server (for high-traffic computer networks). Windows XP (October 2001) Windows XP was released in The new operating system is built on the Windows 2000 kernel, giving the user a more stable and reliable environment than previous versions of Windows. Windows XP comes in two versions, Home and Professional. Microsoft focused on mobility for both editions, including plug and play features for connecting to wireless networks. 9

10 The operating system also utilizes the x wireless security standard. Windows XP is one of Microsoft's best-selling products. Windows Vista (November 2006) Windows Vista offered an advancement in reliability, security, ease of deployment, performance and manageability over Windows XP. Windows Vista is noticeably more responsive than Windows XP on identical hardware. Windows Vista simplifies and centralizes desktop configuration management, reducing the cost of keeping systems updated. Windows 7 (October, 2009) Windows 7 was released by Microsoft on October 22, 2009 as the latest in the 25-yearold line of Windows operating systems. Windows 7 was released in conjunction with Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 7's server counterpart. New features in Windows 7 include multi-touch support, Internet Explorer 8, improved performance and start-up time, Aero Snap, Aero Shake, support for virtual hard disks, a new and improved Windows Media Center, and improved security. Windows 8 Windows 8 was released on August. 1, 2012 and is a completely redesigned operating system that's been developed from the ground up with touch screen use in mind as well as near-instant-on capabilities that enable a Windows 8 PC to load and start up in a matter of seconds rather than in minutes. Windows 8 will replace the more traditional Microsoft Windows OS look and feel with a new "Metro" design system interface that first debuted in the Windows Phone 7 mobile operating system. The Metro user interface primarily consists of a "Start screen" made up of "Live Tiles," which are links to applications and features that are dynamic and update in real time. Windows 8 supports both x86 PCs and ARM processors. 10

11 Windows 10 Windows 10 debuted on July 29, 2015, following a "technical preview" beta release of the new operating system that arrived in fall 2014 and a "consumer preview" beta in early Microsoft claims Windows 10 features fast start up and resume, built-in security and the return of the Start Menu in an expanded form. This version of Windows will also feature Microsoft Edge, Microsoft's new browser. Any qualified device (such as tablets, PCs, smartphones and Xbox consoles) can upgrade to Windows 10, including those with pirated copies of Windows. Microsoft Operating Systems for Servers and Mobile Devices Microsoft has also developed operating systems for services, handheld devices, and mobile phones. Windows Server (March 2003) Windows servers are more powerful versions of their desktop operating system counterparts and are designed to more efficiently handle corporate networking, Internet/intranet hosting, databases, enterprise-scale messaging and similar functions. Windows Home Server (January 2007) Windows Home Server (WHS) is a "consumer server" designed to use with multiple computers connected in the home. Home Server allows you to share files such as digital photos and media files, and also allows you to automatically backup your home networked computers. Through Windows Media Connect, Windows Home Server lets you share any media located on your WHS with compatible devices. Windows CE (November 2006) A version of the Windows operating system designed for small devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) (or Handheld PCs in the Microsoft vernacular). The Windows CE graphical user interface (GUI) is very similar to Windows 95 so devices running Windows CE should be easy to operate for anyone familiar with Windows

12 Windows Mobile (April 2000) A mobile operating system for smartphones and mobile devices from Microsoft based on the Windows CE kernel and designed to look and operate similar to desktop versions of Microsoft Windows. Windows Mobile has largely been supplanted by Windows Phone 7, although Microsoft did release, in 2011, Windows Embedded Handheld 6.5, a mobile OS compatible with Windows Mobile 6.5 that's designed for enterprise mobile and handheld computing devices. Windows Phone (November 2010) A mobile operating system for smartphones and mobile devices that serves as the successor to Microsoft's initial mobile OS platform system, Windows Mobile. Unlike Windows Mobile, Windows Phone 7 (also referred to as WinPhone7) is targeted more to the consumer market than the enterprise market, and it replaces the more traditional Microsoft Windows OS look and feel with a new "Metro" design system user interface. Windows Phone 7 features a multi-tab Internet Explorer Mobile Web browser that uses a rendering engine based on Internet Explorer 9 as well Microsoft Office Mobile, a version of Microsoft Office that s tailored for mobile devices. Its successors include Windows Phone 8 and Windows 10 Mobile. 12

13 HISTORY OF COMPUTER INVENTION OF THE PC: THE COMPUTER AGE One of the first and most famous of these, the Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer (ENIAC), was built at the University of Pennsylvania to do ballistics calculations for the U.S. military during World War II. ENIAC cost $500,000, weighed 30 tons and took up nearly 2,000 square feet of floor space. On the outside, ENIAC was covered in a tangle of cables, hundreds of blinking lights and nearly 6,000 mechanical switches that its operators used to tell it what to do. On the inside, almost 18,000 vacuum tubes carried electrical signals from one part of the machine to another. INVENTION OF THE PC: POSTWAR INNOVATIONS 1617 In 1948, Bell Labs introduced the transistor, an electronic device that carried and amplified electrical current but was much smaller than the cumbersome vacuum tube. Ten years later, scientists at Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor came up with the integrated circuit, an invention that incorporated all of the computer s electrical parts transistors, capacitors, resistors and diodes into a single silicon chip. The first microprocessor on the market was developed in 1971 by an engineer at Intel named Ted Hoff. (Intel was located in California s Santa Clara Valley, a place nicknamed Silicon Valley because of all the high-tech companies clustered around the Stanford Industrial Park there.) Intel s first microprocessor, a 1/16-by-1/8-inch chip called the 4004, had the same computing power as the massive ENIAC. इस वषर ज न न पयर न मक व ज ञ नक न न पयर ब न क न म स लकड़ और आईवर क र ड बन ई जसक इस त म ल calculate करन क लए कय गय 1642 इस वषर ब ल ज प स कल न मक व ज ञ नक न प स वल इन क न म स ड जटल ए ड ग मश न बन ई 13

14 1801 In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom that uses punched wooden cards to automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven calculating machine that would be able to compute tables of numbers. The project, funded by the English government, is a failure. More than a century later, however, the world's first computer was actually built Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880 census, accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the government $5 million. He establishes a company that would ultimately become IBM इस वषर ल त म लइस इसक और कर य प ट ट क ट र य ड य ब य मव क न व ज ञ नक न मक टफ र स-ड - इल क ट र नक वच क त र पर पहल इल क ट र नक कम प य टर म कय गय 1936 Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later called the Turing machine, capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern computer was based on his ideas J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, attempts to build the first computer without gears, cams, belts or shafts Hewlett-Packard is founded by David Packard and Bill Hewlett in a Palo Alto, California, garage, according to the Computer History Museum. 14

15 1941 Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can solve 29 equations simultaneously. This marks the first time a computer is able to store information on its main memory इस वषर ऐलन ट नर क न मक व ज ञ नक न एक स क र ट ब र टश क ड क ब र क करन क लए कम प य टर डज इन कय जसक इस त म ल जमर न क व र इस त म ल य भ ज ज रह ग प त स द श क डक ड करन म कय गय इस कम प य टर क क ड ब र क ग कम प य टर क न म दय गय Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of digital computers, it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes ज न ब न न य म न न मक स इ टस ट न EDB एस न मक कम प य टर क ऊपर एक रप टर बन ई इस रप टर म इस कम प य टर क स प णर ख क व स तव म एक म डनर अथ र त आध नक स ट र ज प र ग र म व ल कम प य र क थ 1946 Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and government applications. इस वषर ENIAC एस न मक कम प य टर क नम र ण ह आ और इस मश न क बन न क य म चल तथ ज ट र स न मक व ज ञ नक क गय

16 William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent the transistor. They discovered how to make an electric switch with solid materials and no need for a vacuum. इस वषर 23 दस बर क व लयम स कल ब टल ब र टम न और ज न व ड र न न मक व ज ञ नक न मलकर प व इ ट स क न ट क ट करक बनन व ल ट र ज स टर क सफलत प वर क पर क षण कय और यह स स म क ड क टर क श आत ह ई 1949 इस वषर EDS एस न मक पहल व यवह रक प र ग र म न मक कम प य टर क नम र ण ह आ यह नम र ण क म प र च वश व व य लय म म र वकल स न मक व ज ञ नक न कय 1950 इस वषर इ ज नय र ग रसचर एस सए स ऑफ म न एप ल स व ड ग क व र पहल क म शर यल इस त म ल कए ज सकन व ल कम प य टर क उत प दन कय गय 1953 Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as COBOL. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war The FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, is developed by a team of programmers at IBM led by John Backus, according to the University of Michigan Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip. Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his work Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI). This marks the evolution of the computer from a specialized machine for scientists and mathematicians to technology that is more accessible to the general public

17 A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that addressed compatibility issues. Written in the C programming language, UNIX was portable across multiple platforms and became the operating system of choice among mainframes at large companies and government entities. Due to the slow nature of the system, it never quite gained traction among home PC users The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the "floppy disk," allowing data to be shared among computers Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for connecting multiple computers and other hardware A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100, Radio Shack's TRS-80 affectionately known as the "Trash 80" and the Commodore PET The January issue of Popular Electronics magazine features the Altair 8080, described as the "world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." Two "computer geeks," Paul Allen and Bill Gates, offer to write software for the Altair, using the new BASIC language. On April 4, after the success of this first endeavor, the two childhood friends form their own software company, Microsoft Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April Fool's Day and roll out the Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board, according to Stanford University Radio Shack's initial production run of the TRS-80 was just 3,000. It sold like crazy. For the first time, non-geeks could write programs and make a computer do what they wished

18 Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It offers color graphics and incorporates an audio cassette drive for storage Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet program Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International releases WordStar. "The defining change was to add margins and word wrap," said creator Rob Barnaby in to Mike Petrie in "Additional changes included getting rid of command mode and adding a print function. I was the technical brains I figured out how to do it, and did it, and documented it. " 1981 The first IBM personal computer, code-named "Acorn," is introduced. It uses Microsoft's MS- DOS operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy disks and an optional color monitor. Sears & Roebuck and Computerland sell the machines, marking the first time a computer is available through outside distributors. It also popularizes the term PC Apple's Lisa is the first personal computer with a GUI. It also features a drop-down menu and icons. It flops but eventually evolves into the Macintosh. The Gavilan SC is the first portable computer with the familiar flip form factor and the first to be marketed as a "laptop." 1985 Microsoft announces Windows, according to Encyclopedia Britannica. This was the company's response to Apple's GUI. Commodore unveils the Amiga 1000, which features advanced audio and video capabilities The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years before the World Wide Web would mark the formal beginning of Internet history. The Symbolics Computer Company, a small Massachusetts computer manufacturer, registers Symbolics.com. More than two years later, only 100 dot-coms had been registered

19 Compaq brings the Deskpro 386 to market. Its 32-bit architecture provides as speed comparable to mainframes Tim Berners-Lee Invented World Wide Web. With Robert Cailliau, sent first HTTP communication between client and server Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory in Geneva, develops HyperText Markup Language (HTML), giving rise to the World Wide Web The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs PCs become gaming machines as "Command & Conquer," "Alone in the Dark 2," "Theme Park," "Magic Carpet," "Descent" and "Little Big Adventure" are among the games to hit the market Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at the time, ending Apple's court case against Microsoft in which it alleged that Microsoft copied the "look and feel" of its operating system The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and users begin connecting to the Internet without wires Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides protected memory architecture and pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits. Not to be outdone, Microsoft rolls out Windows XP, which has a significantly redesigned GUI

20 The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, becomes available to the consumer market Mozilla's Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft's Internet Explorer, the dominant Web browser. Facebook, a social networking site, launches YouTube, a video sharing service, is founded. Google acquires Android, a Linux-based mobile phone operating system Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer, as well as an Intel-based imac. Nintendo's Wii game console hits the market The iphone brings many computer functions to the smartphone Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin applications to the taskbar and advances in touch and handwriting recognition, among other features Apple unveils the ipad, changing the way consumers view media and jumpstarting the dormant tablet computer segment Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs the Google Chrome OS Facebook gains 1 billion users on October Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows

21 The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until now, there hasn't been any quantum-computing platform that had the capability to program new algorithms into their system. They're usually each tailored to attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author Shantanu Debnath, a quantum physicist and optical engineer at the University of Maryland, College Park The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is developing a new "Molecular Informatics" program that uses molecules as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set of properties that we may be able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and processing," Anne Fischer, program manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office, said in a statement. "Millions of molecules exist, and each molecule has a unique three-dimensional atomic structure as well as variables such as shape, size, or even color. This richness provides a vast design space for exploring novel and multi-value ways to encode and process data beyond the 0s and 1s of current logic-based, digital architectures." [Computers of the Future May Be Minuscule Molecular Machines] 21