Cimarron: The development of a typeface family

Transcription

1 Cimarron: The development of a typeface family Ben Kiel MA Typeface Design University of Reading August 2005

2 Contents Introduction 1 Initial typeface design 2 Research 3 Reference typefaces 4 Sketching 5 Determining design parameters 6 Completing the initial design 6 Latin development 8 Book weight Reworking of initial design 9 Capital design 10 JFP workshop 11 Final changes 11 Diacritic design 12 Numeral design 12 Bold/Black weight References 12 Design parameters 12 Character design 12 Italic design Informal workshop 13 Start of design 13 Spacing method 14 Kerning method 14 Determining typeface family weights 14 Greek development 15 References 16 Strategy for script harmonization 16 Sketches 16 Character design 16 Harmonization with Latin 17 Spacing & kerning 17 Technical development 18 Hinting 19 Effects on stem width 19 Determining character set/encoding 19 OpenType Features 20 Scripts for type design 20 Text generation 20 FontLab 20 Character encoding 21 Bibliography 25 Contents

3 Introduction Cimarron started as a project to design a typeface for the large print editions of novels. Large print books are designed with a large type size, typically 16 point, for readers with limited or low vision. Few typefaces are designed for continuous reading at 16 point, a problem which was the initial challenge of Cimarron. However, it became apparent that the time required for testing the legibility and readability of the finished typeface would not be available. The brief for Cimarron then became simply a book typeface for the typographically intense environment of university press typesetting. The typeface exists in five weights to provide a range of typographic colour to the typesetter. Several OpenType features also cater to the typesetter: capital spacing, case sensitive punctuation, four versions of numerals, ordinals, numerators & denominators in both regular and capital positions, language sensitive forms for number signs and ordinals, capitals to small capitals and lowercase to small capitals, ligatures, super and subscript numerals, and fractions. The book weight also includes a companion Greek weighted to set well with the roman script. The development of Cimarron produced several tools for typeface design. These tools include programs to generate pseudo-text form a limited character set, scripts to generate many variants from a multiple master typeface, scripts to build a large number of accented characters quickly, and scripts to ease deficiencies in FontLab. Cimarron is still a typeface under development with designs underway for an italic and plans for a polytonic expansion to the Greek and a further expansion of the character set. Introduction

4 Initial typeface design The process of designing Cimarron first started with research into the design and typeface selection of large print editions of books. Concurrently a wide variety of successful book typefaces were studied. From these two sources sketching started. Once a rough version of the characters a, d, e, h, i, o, n, and s were sketched and imported into Font- Lab a multiple master typeface was used to determine the initial design parameters of Cimarron. After using this multiple master to test for serif style and weight, the lowercase character set of the typeface was completed. This initial phase was a period of trial and error, with a lot of error. At the end of this phase of development, a new typeface was started. This typeface took the proportions and a few of the curves from the first typeface and started the rest of the typeface from scratch. Initial typeface design

5 Research An informal survey of the large print book sections of book stores in Bloomington, Indiana was undertaken to find out what a typical text setting of a large print book is. Generally large print books tend to have type set at 16 point, reduced margins to compensate for the space that the large type takes up, and usually use Plantin as the text face, though some variation was found in typeface selection. The reason for Plantin seeming to be the universal typeface of choice for large print books was unclear. During the research for the first essay, this mystery was solved. In the only comprehensive study (Shaw 1969) on typefaces and sizes for readers with partial sight, Shaw concluded that Plantin was the most legible typeface for large print. The study, however, did not test a full range of typographic combinations with all subjects and it mixes data from those with very poor vision and those with relatively good vision. Further research is still needed to determine an optimal Top, a typical large print book setting. Large print edition of The Da Vinci Code. Middle, a unfortunate use of Helvetica in a book on Audry Hepburn. Bottom, a setting of a book of popular history. Initial typeface design

6 point size and typeface for large print, if such recommendations could be made. Shaw s study seems to have an effect larger than originally intended. The National Association for the Visually Handicapped, an organization in the United States, reviews and approves large print books by Random House, Simon and Schuster, and Harper Collins. All these publishers almost exclusively use Plantin set at 16 point for their large print books. This research set the mark to be used when testing Cimarron. The goal was to make the colour, weight, body size, and efficiency comparable to Plantin. However, to truly make a claim that Cimarron was a typeface suitable for large print books, user testing would need to be done. Unfortunately, the design of the typeface was not completed with enough time to allow for this testing. When it became apparent that this would be the case, the initial brief for the typeface changed from a typeface for large print books to a typeface for the typographically intense environment of university press typesetting. Reference Typefaces Above, sketches of a sampling of reference typefaces looked at during the initial design of Cimarron. Here the proportions of the faces are being looked at. Initial typeface design

7 turkey turkey turkey Whitman (36 point), Cimarron (32.5 point), and Plantin (32.5 point) showing the proportions of each face Many book typefaces were looked at during the design of Cimarron. Initially, a range of book faces were looked at for general proportion: Bembo, Caledonia, Dante, Deepdene, the Golden Cockerel Roman, Imprint, Plantin, Romulus, Monotype Scotch Roman, Solus, and Whitman were looked at. After looking at all the faces set in text and sketching the general proportions of each, the general proportions of Whitman were chosen for the initial design of Cimarron. Later on in the development, these proportions were changed to be more between Whitman and Plantin, as shown above. Whitman was a good model for the proportions of the typeface, but not the weight. In researching for the first essay, it was shown that a darker typeface is better for those with partial sight (Shaw 1969 and Arditi, Cagenello et al. 1995), as well as printing on offset presses. For weight and color, Plantin and Swift were the models for Cimarron. Swift was chosen because there were numerous printed examples around the University to study the printed weight from. Plantin was chosen because it was the competitor typeface to Cimarron. Later in the development Scotch Roman and slab-serif typefaces became references to draw on for the design of the capitals. Though Cimarron has a lower contrast than the Scotch Romans, it shares many features with them. Likewise, Cimarron isn t truly a slab-serif, but it also shares many of the features of a slab-serif typeface. Clarendon, Egyptienne, FB Scotch, Georgia, Monotype Scotch Roman, and Rockwell were all looked at. Sketching Above, early sketches of a, e and an i, working out the proportion of the counters and possible stroke endings. Initial typeface design

8 Cimarron was sketched very loosely to get a general feeling for what the proportions and counters could be and the possibilities for stroke endings and terminals. It was found better to ignore the rough nature of the sketches and to focus on roughly plotting the general character of the typeface. Once the proportions were felt to be generally correct and ideas were developed for counter shapes the sketches were scanned, placed in Illustrator, traced over, and imported into FontLab. Determining design parameters adhesion adhesion adhesion adhesion First multiple master with weight values of 400, 450, 500, and 550, left to right Once the initial sketches were digitized and in FontLab, two multiple master typefaces were built to explore the initial design of Cimarron. The first typeface explored the possible weights and widths of Cimarron. This two-axis typeface was used to determine the initial stem width and counter size of Cimarron. The example above shows the first four typefaces that were generated to explore the weight of the characters. Each instance was compared to Plantin and Swift to determine which axis values produced the character weight and width that was desired. Once these values were determined, a second typeface was built to explore the serif design of the initial typeface. From the loose sketches it was determined that the typeface would have bracketed serifs, but the degree of bracketing was ill-determined. The second typeface explored the possibilities for serif bracketing. With a values for the stem width, character width, and an idea of the initial serif structure in hand the next step in the design of Cimarron was to fill out the character set. At this stage in the design process it became evident that multiple masters would play a large role in the design of Cimarron. Generating many instances of a multiple master typeface for testing can be a frustrating experience, for it is time consuming to generate an instance, name it properly, and generate the font file for testing. This frustration was the starting point for the development of several python scripts to aid the design and production process. Completing the initial design abcdefhijklmnopqrsuv abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz With the general parameters of the design decided on the completion of the lowercase was a rapid process. Once a full initial character set was complete several flaws in the design became quickly apparent. The design had issues with the consistency of Above, Cimarron One, versions 14, 21, 24 and 27. Version 24 is the version produced after sketching the stress of the typeface with a broad nib pen. Version 27 is the last version of the initial typeface before starting the design over. Initial typeface design

9 design features, consistency of weight between characters, and consistency of stress. Thus began several rounds of changes to improve the consistency of the lowercase and to decide on several design features. Also, at this stage in the development of the typeface the distinctive features of the design had yet to be found. After the character set was finished, it was traced over with a broad nib pen to get a feeling of the proper stress of the typeface. This exercise helped in defining the stress in a design that has a low contrast. Above, sketches with a broad nib pen tracing the stress of the initial typeface. The many rounds of changes slowly got to both a better consistency in the typeface and the emergence of Cimarron s distinctive curve. However, the process was slow and the end result was still rather inconsistent. At this point it was decided to take inventory of the typeface and start anew. Initial typeface design

10 Latin development After the initial typeface development reveled several problems in the design for Cimarron the typeface was restarted. Development proceeded fairly quickly once the problems in the initial design had been identified. The first weight to be fully developed was the book weight. Concurrently with the design and production of the book weight, initial designs for the bold and the italic weights were being developed. The bold was the second weight to be finished for Cimarron. Before the italic design was finished, work started on the Greek variant of the typeface. Consequently, the italic design was not taken to completion due to a lack of time. After the book and bold weights were spaced and kerned they were combined in a multiple master typeface. This typeface was used to produce the weight variants of Cimarron. Latin development

11 Book weight Reworking of initial design The genesis of the second typeface was in the curve of the lowercase n of the initial typeface. This curve was deemed to be an interesting direction to take the typeface, so it was re-sketched and examined. This curve was then applied to the design of each character. Below is an illustration of how the curve was applied across the typeface. At the same time tests were run to determine the height and length of the baseline serifs. The serifs in the example below also illustrate how the serifs in Cimarron developed over time. abcdefhijklmnopqrsuv abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Above top, sketches of possible new curves for Cimarron. These sketches were looking at the curve of the lowercase n in the initial typeface and refining it for use throughout the new typeface. Above bottom, Cimarron versions 2.01, 2.04, 2.18, and 2.22 illustrating the development of the curve of the lowercase n from the initial typeface as it is applied across the new version of Cimarron. This progression also illustrates how the serif weight changed over time. Latin Development

12 a a a a a h h h h h p p p p pleft, typeface details changing over time. Note the serif and curve of the top of the a, the serifs of the h, and the serifs of the p. Left to right these are typeface versions 2.01, 2.04, 2.18, 2.22, and Cimarron Book. The development of the second typeface was also a chance to finish fixing weight problems and counter proportions from the first typeface. The example above illustrates how the counters and proportions changed slightly throughout the development of the second typeface as compared to the final version of the typeface at the right. After the weight, counter proportion, and curves were correct in the typeface, details such as out strokes and slant of the e, the slant and serif design of the s, and the weight and angle of the f were explored and decided on. Again, below is an example of how these features changed during the reworking of the initial design e e e e e s s s s s f f f f f Left, typeface details changing over time. Left to right these are typeface versions 2.01, 2.04, 2.18, 2.22, and Cimarron Book. Capital design The next step of development was the design of Cimarron s capitals. The design of the capitals started with designing the small capitals. The decision was made to make the small capitals the height of mid-capitals, so as to be somewhat distinguishable from the lowercase, but not standing out too much. Small capital design was started before the design of the capitals because the weight and proportion of the small capitals are close to the lowercase. This makes designing them easier. The small capitals were designed while looking at capital examples from slab serif typefaces. The decision was made to make the capital height less then the ascender height. This helps the capitals blend into text, especially useful for languages that make heavy use of capitals such as German. Lower capitals also make the design of capital diacritics easier by giving more space to the designer to use. Once designed, the small capitals were scaled up to the height of the capitals. The stroke weight was increased, the design Latin Development 10

13 made more formal, and proportions were changed to make the capitals slightly wider than the small caps. Once all the small capitals and capitals were designed, the weights of all the cases were tested and adjusted to fit together where needed. At this point the design of the roman was mostly decided on. Jean Francois Porchez workshop The design of the book weight went through one more reevaluation during a week-long workshop held by Jean Francois Porchez. Not having seen the typeface before Porchez was in the position to challenge the assumptions that had been made during the design and suggest alternate design directions for the typeface. The area needed and received the most attention during the workshop was the design of the capitals. The design was pushed into a more Scotch Roman direction. R A S T Q C Left, key capitals before and then after the workshop with Jean Francois Porchez. Font versions are 3.47 and Cimarron.003 R A S T Q C The lowercase also received a similar treatment during the workshop, with several alternate lowercase a and s characters explored. Ultimately the lowercase a alternates were discarded, but the lowercase s stayed. a s t u f g k q a s t u f g k q Left, key lowercase letters before and then after the workshop with Jean Francois Porchez. The alternate a which was abandonded can be seen in the lower typeface. Font versions are 3.47 and Cimarron.003 Though challenging at the time, the workshop helped to improve the design of Cimarron by making the design vocabulary used in the lower and uppercase more consistent and by helping to push the typeface to recognize its historical roots in Scotch Romans, slab-serifs, and the typefaces of Dwiggins. Final changes a j s y a j s y After the workshop the a couple of key design decisions needed to be made. The workshop had made severe changes to the lowercase a, j, s, and y. After testing the character in text it was decided to keep the changes to the lowercase s but retain the older designs of the a, j, and y. Now that the design was locked, what remained were changes to the characters to make sure that the capitals were balanced, the weight and strokes of the lowercase were consistent, that the point placement of all glyphs were correct, the punctuation had the correct weight, and that the spacing of the typeface was correct. Above, the letters a, j, s and y before and after the workshop Latin development 11

14 Diacritic Design ˇ ˆ ` ˉ The design of Cimarron s diacritics was heavily influenced by Victor Gaultney s visits to the University, the diacritics.typo.cz project, and by Adam Twardoch s Polish diacritic how-to. Three sets of diacritics were designed, one each for the lowercase, small capitals, and capitals. The lowercase diacritics were made larger and steeper than the other diacritics. The capital and small capital diacritics were made slightly smaller and less steep to prevent clashing lines of text above them. Because of the large numbers of accented characters in the required glyph set, a FontLab Python script was build all the accented characters with anchors that were possible. Numeral design ⁰¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹₀₁₂₃₄₅₆₇₈₉ Five sets of numerals were designed for Cimarron: old style, lining, tabular old style, tabular lining, and super/subscript. As much as possible the numbers drew from the serif designs and curves of Cimarron. The height of the old style numerals were set at slightly higher than the x-height so that they would work with both the lowercase characters and with the small capital characters. From the super/subscript design numerators and denominators were built for both the lowercase and the capital height. These numerals are used by the fraction OpenType feature. Bold/Black weight Cimarron has a designed black weight which was used to interpolate a bold, semibold and an extrapolated black weight. References When designing the black weight of Cimarron the bolds of wood type typefaces, and the black weights of modern-style typefaces were looked at. Cimarron takes most of its clues for the bold design from the wood type faces of Stephenson Blake. Design parameters Just as with the book weight of Cimarron, a multiple master typeface was created to explore the weight options of a bold design and the serif size for the bold. These tests were completed before the final design of the book weight, So they had to be discarded in the end. However, the tests informed the selection of the appropriate bold weight of Cimarron when the final multiple master typeface was built. Character design Once the final book weight had been locked, the design of the bold proceeded. Features of the book weight were exaggerated, but care was taken to keep the point structure of Latin Development 12

15 the bold the same as of the book weight. The stem weight of the book was doubled to arrive at the stem weight of the black. R Q a g R Q a g Above, example of the exageration of the black weight Italic Design Informal workshop The design of the Cimarron italic started in the workshop that Gerard Unger ran on creating informal italics. From the workshop the general idea of a very prominent upturned tail took root. Start of italic design Above, sketches from the informal workshop After the informal workshop, the design started for Cimarron italic. The first step was to slant the book weight and sketch on top of the slanted forms with a broad nib pen to figure out how the letter forms could be italicized. After these sketches were made, a simple adhesion character set was created to find the appropriate italic angle to harmonize with the roman. Once this was done, a couple of iterations of the character set were worked on before the italic was set aside to work on the Greek variant of Cimarron. a d h e s i o n Above, current design of Cimarron Italic Latin development 13

16 Spacing method The spacing method used for Cimarron followed Miguel s method of spacing. First characters with straights (b, d, h, i, l, m, n, u) were spaced against each other at about one and a half stroke widths apart. Next, round characters (b, d, o, q, e, p, c) were spaced against each other at about one stroke width apart. After the spacing of both of these groups were checked when they were combined, the odd characters (a, f, j, k, r, t) were spaced within each of the other groups, then the combined group. The diagonal characters (v, w, x, y, z) were spaced so that they were one thin stroke width apart. Doing so guarantees that at low resolution these characters will not collide. Kerning method Kerning for Cimarron was done with MeticsMachine, a tool that Tal Leming of Type Supply, has developed to make class kerning of fonts easier. Tal was kind enough to allow me to beta test the software so that I could use it for this project. After classes were built in MetricsMachine, problem pairs were identified by looking at a kerning test document which pairs know problem pairs together. The font was then kerned, tested, and kerned again. Determining typeface family weight Cimarron Regular Cimarron Book Cimarron Semibold Cimarron Bold Cimarron Black Once the multiple master typeface of the book weight and the black weight had been built a range of variants were generated and compared to the weights of Plantin. The weights which best matched those of Plantin s bold and semibold were chosen for Cimarron s bold and semibold. Above, the range of weights in Cimarron Latin development 14

17 Greek development Greek development 15

18 References Cimarron Greek looked at Minion and Garamond Premier for examples of well designed contemporary Greek typefaces with a Latin compliment. It also looked at the Porson Greek and the range of Greek typefaces designed by Matthew Carter. Strategy for script harmonization Cimarron Greek was designed from the start as a typeface that would work well with the Roman version of Cimarron. The x-height of the Greek was kept similar to Cimarron, though it was a tab bit higher to compensate for the large number of overshoots in Greek. The maximum ascender and descender lengths were also kept to the values of the Roman version of Cimarron. Lastly, the thick stroke weight of the greek was given the same value as the thick stroke in the Roman version of Cimarron. Sketches Above and left, sketches of the alpha and xi. Like the Roman version of Cimarron, sketches were used to quickly determine the counters, stroke stress, and in and out strokes of the Greek. The character from the sketches that had the most potential was the alpha this was what was digitized and taken into FontLab. Character design The process of designing the characters for the Greek involved looking very closely at references, drawing each character several times with a felt-tip pen to get the feeling of the writing the character, working on a it in FontLab and then soliciting feedback from native speakers and experts. The design of each glyph was an iterative process of this sequence. More than the Latin script, the Greek required a closer look at sources and study of writing methods. Greek development 16

19 Harmonization with Latin How now brown cow? Θυμάμαι που φύγαμε Above, A comparison of the x-heights of both scripts Because the design of Cimarron Greek had been planned to be used with the Latin from the start, the process of script harmonization was relatively easy. When the Greek was combined with the Latin for the first time the relative colour of each were very different. Rather than a flaw in the Greek, this actually pointed to the Latin being spaced too loosely. Once the spacing of the Latin was fixed, the typographic colour of both scripts proved to be equal, the x-heights visually the same, and stroke weight similar. Spacing & Kerning Spacing the Greek was appeared to be trickier than spacing the Latin, but in fact proved to be a bit easier. First rounds were spaced with rounds and test text was generated with adhesiontext.com to test for an even colour on the page. After the rounds had been spaced, the few straights were spaced as tightly as possible, as mostly they come up against only other rounds. Kerning was similar. Kerning was done to tighten up some combinations of straights that were too loose with just the spacing. Some straight/round combinations were also tightened where spacing left them too loose. This was all the kerning that was done to the Greek. Greek development 17

20 Technical Development Type design is much more than drawing shapes and spacing them properly. It requires a technical knowledge in order to produce sold, working typefaces. Cimarron was a chance to find ways of speeding up the development of large glyph and family sets. It also was a chance to explore OpenType and hinting. Technical development 18

21 Hinting Cimarron was hinted with Type 1 hints. The hinting process was fairly straight-forward: stem widths were defined as were alignment zones. Then each master of the multiple master face was auto-hinted and checked. After the weight instances of Cimarron were generated, the hinting was checked again to make sure that the hints were interpolated correctly. Effects on stem width Top, text without hints Bottom, text with hints During the development of Cimarron it became clear that text as it was being printed from the printer did not match the actual values of the stems. In the above example, the top image is a run of text without hints. Though the stems are all the same, they appear to have different weights when printed. As a trial, the font was quickly auto-hinted to see if there would be any affect to the output by the hinting. Once hinted, the bottom example, the variations in stroke weights disappeared. Determining character set/encoding Because Cimarron is a typeface for complex typographic problems, the character set had to reflect this. This required many more glyphs to be added beyond the required character set. Small capitals, case punctuation, old style numerals, old style tabular numerals, lining tabular numerals, superior and inferior figures, and numerators and denominators were all added to the glyph set. A full glyph list is in the appendix of this document. Technical development 19

22 OpenType features Cimarron has many OpenType features to support book typesetting. The features that were chosen to be included are: case sensitive punctuation (case), fractions (frac), caps to small caps (c2sc), lowercase to small caps (smcp), old style numerals (onum), numerators (numr), denominators (dnom), lining figures (lnum), proportional figures (pnum), tabular figures (tnum), subscript (subs), superscript (sups), a stylistic set for an alternate phi (ss01), a stylistic set for alternate masculine and feminine ordinals (ss02), a stylistic set for an alternative number sign (ss03), stylistic alternatives (salt), ligatures (liga), ordinals (ordn), and cap spacing (cpsp). Scrips for type design Text generation The first problem facing the development of Cimarron was how to test the typographic color of a typeface with only a limited character set. A script was written in GAWK, a UNIX scripting language, to take a given text, a given word list, and a given list of characters and produce a new text with words from the word list containing only the characters listed. The new text is modeled on the given text, so if one wants to test text for newspapers, thy can give a bit of newspaper text to the script and get a text back that approximates the pattern of word length in that newspaper text. The script can also be tuned to try and replace the frequency of a character. As shipped the script tries to match the frequency of the letter e, the most common letter in English, so that the produced text is as close to real text as is possible from a limited character set. FontLab Several scripts were developed for FontLab to ease type development. The most important scripts were a script to generate instances from a multiple master typeface quickly, a script to generate a font from the current working font, a script to quickly build accents, and a script to copy font metrics to different masters in an multiple master typeface. Technical Development 20

23 Needed.notdef.null CR space uni00a0 (non-breaking space) uni00ad (soft hyphen) Lowercase a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Uppercase A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Small caps A.sc B.sc C.sc D.sc E.sc F.sc G.sc H.sc I.sc J.sc K.sc L.sc M.sc N.sc O.sc P.sc Q.sc R.sc S.sc T.sc U.sc V.sc W.sc X.sc Y.sc Z.sc Lowercase accents acute breve caron cedilla circumflex commaaboverightcmb commaaccent (also encoded as uni02c9) dieresis dotaccent grave hungarumlaut macron ogonek ring tilde Uppercase accents acute.cap breve.cap caron.cap cedilla.cap circumflex.cap commaaboverightcmb.cap commaaccent.cap dieresis.cap dotaccent.cap grave.cap hungarumlaut.cap macron.cap ogonek.cap ring.cap tilde.cap Small cap accents acute.sc breve.sc caron.sc cedilla.sc circumflex.sc commaaboverightcmb.sc commaaccent.sc dieresis.sc dotaccent.sc grave.sc hungarumlaut.sc macron.sc ogonek.sc ring.sc tilde.sc Accented lowercase aacute abreve acircumflex adieresis ae aeacute agrave amacron aogonek aring aringacute atilde cacute ccaron ccedilla ccircumflex cdotaccent dcaron dcroat dotlessi eacute ebreve ecaron ecircumflex edieresis edotaccent egrave emacron eng eogonek eth gbreve gcircumflex gcommaaccent gdotaccent germandbls hbar hcircumflex iacute ibreve icircumflex idieresis igrave ij imacron iogonek itilde jcircumflex kcommaaccent kgreenlandic lacute lcaron lcommaaccent ldot lslash nacute ncaron ncommaaccent ntilde oacute obreve ocircumflex odieresis oe ograve ohungarumlaut omacron oslash oslashacute otilde racute rcaron rcommaaccent sacute Cimarron Encoding Encoding 21

24 scaron scedilla scircumflex scommaaccent tbar tcaron tcommaaccent (also encoded as uni021b) thorn uacute ubreve ucircumflex udieresis ugrave uhungarumlaut umacron uogonek uring utilde wacute wcircumflex wdieresis wgrave yacute ycircumflex ydieresis ygrave zacute zcaron zdotaccent Accented uppercase Aacute Abreve Acircumflex Adieresis AE AEacute Agrave Amacron Aogonek Aring Aringacute Atilde Cacute Ccaron Ccedilla Ccircumflex Cdotaccent Dcaron Dcroat Eacute Ebreve Ecaron Ecircumflex Edieresis Edotaccent Egrave Emacron Eng Eogonek Eth Gbreve Gcircumflex Gcommaaccent Gdotaccent Hbar Hcircumflex Iacute Ibreve Icircumflex Idieresis Idotaccent Igrave IJ Imacron Iogonek Itilde Jcircumflex Kcommaaccent Lacute Lcaron Lcommaaccent Ldot Lslash Nacute Ncaron Ncommaaccent Ntilde Oacute Obreve Ocircumflex Odieresis OE Ograve Ohungarumlaut Omacron Oslash Oslashacute Otilde Racute Rcaron Rcommaaccent Sacute Scaron Scedilla Scircumflex Scommaaccent Tbar Tcaron Tcommaaccent (also encoded as uni021a) Thorn Uacute Ubreve Ucircumflex Udieresis Ugrave Uhungarumlaut Umacron Uogonek Uring Utilde Wacute Wcircumflex Wdieresis Wgrave Yacute Ycircumflex Ydieresis Ygrave Zacute Zcaron Zdotaccent Accented small caps Aacute.sc Abreve.sc Acircumflex.sc Adieresis.sc AE.sc AEacute.sc Agrave.sc Amacron.sc Aogonek.sc Aring.sc Aringacute.sc Atilde.sc Cacute.sc Ccaron.sc Ccedilla.sc Ccircumflex.sc Cdotaccent.sc Dcaron.sc Dcroat.sc Eacute.sc Ebreve.sc Ecaron.sc Ecircumflex.sc Edieresis.sc Edotaccent.sc Egrave.sc Emacron.sc Eng.sc Eogonek.sc Eth.sc Gbreve.sc Gcircumflex.sc Gcommaaccent.sc Gdotaccent.sc Hbar.sc Hcircumflex.sc Dotlessi.sc Iacute.sc Ibreve.sc Icircumflex.sc Idieresis.sc Idotaccent.sc Igrave.sc IJ.sc Imacron.sc Iogonek.sc Itilde.sc Jcircumflex.sc Kcommaaccent.sc Lacute.sc Lcaron.sc Lcommaaccent.sc Ldot.sc Lslash.sc Nacute.sc Ncaron.sc Ncommaaccent.sc Ntilde.sc Oacute.sc Obreve.sc Ocircumflex.sc Odieresis.sc OE.sc Ograve.sc Ohungarumlaut.sc Omacron.sc Oslash.sc Oslashacute.sc Otilde.sc Racute.sc Rcaron.sc Rcommaaccent.sc Germandbls.sc Sacute.sc Scaron.sc Scedilla.sc Scircumflex.sc Scommaaccent.sc Tbar.sc Tcaron.sc Tcommaaccent.sc Thorn.sc Uacute.sc Ubreve.sc Ucircumflex.sc Udieresis.sc Ugrave.sc Uhungarumlaut.sc Umacron.sc Uogonek.sc Uring.sc Utilde.sc Wacute.sc Wcircumflex.sc Wdieresis.sc Wgrave.sc Yacute.sc Ycircumflex.sc Ydieresis.sc Ygrave.sc Encoding 22

25 Zacute.sc Zcaron.sc Zdotaccent.sc Ligatures ff ffi ffl f_f_k f_f_b f_f_h f_f_j fi fl f_k f_b f_h f_j Punctuation ampersand asterisk at backslash bar braceleft braceright bracketleft bracketright brokenbar bullet colon comma ellipsis emdash endash exclam exclamdown guillemotleft guillemotright guilsinglleft guilsinglright hyphen numbersign numbersign.alt overline parenleft parenright period periodcentered question questiondown quotedbl quotedblbase quotedblleft quotedblright quoteleft quotereversed quoteright quotesinglbase quotesingle semicolon slash underscore Tabular punctuation colon.tab comma.tab numbersign.tab period.tab semicolon.tab space.tab braceleft.tab braceright.tab bracketleft.tab bracketright.tab bullet.tab parenleft.tab parenright.tab periodcentered.tab Capital punctuation at.cap braceleft.cap braceright.cap bracketleft.cap bracketright.cap bullet.cap emdash.cap endash.cap exclamdown.cap guillemotleft.cap guillemotright.cap guilsinglleft.cap guilsinglright.cap numbersign_cap.alt hyphen.cap parenleft.cap parenright.cap periodcentered.cap questiondown.cap estimated.cap copyright.cap Small cap punctuation braceleft.sc braceright.sc bracketleft.sc bracketright.sc bullet.sc emdash.sc endash.sc exclamdown.sc guillemotleft.sc guillemotright.sc guilsinglleft.sc guilsinglright.sc hyphen.sc parenleft.sc parenright.sc periodcentered.sc questiondown.sc Sorts copyright dagger daggerdbl asciicircum asciitilde paragraph registered section trademark estimated ordfeminine ordmasculine ordfeminine.alt ordmasculine.alt Numeral Sorts fraction onehalf onequarter onethird percent perthousand threequarters twothirds Cap Numeral Sorts slash.cap fraction.cap onehalf.cap onequarter.cap onethird.cap percent.cap perthousand.cap threequarters.cap twothirds.cap Numerals zero one two three four five six seven eight nine Lining tabular numerals zero.tnum one.tnum two.tnum three.tnum four.tnum five.tnum six.tnum seven.tnum eight.tnum nine.tnum Lining proportional numerals zero.pnum one.pnum two.pnum three.pnum four.pnum five.pnum six.pnum seven.pnum eight.pnum nine.pnum Oldstyle tablular Numerals zero.onumtab one.onumtab two.onumtab three.onumtab four.onumtab five.onumtab six.onumtab seven.onumtab eight.onumtab nine.onumtab Superior numerals zerosuperior onesuperior twosuperior threesuperior foursuperior fivesuperior sixsuperior sevensuperior eightsuperior ninesuperior Inferior numerals zeroinferior oneinferior twoinferior threeinferior fourinferior fiveinferior sixinferior seveninferior eightinferior nineinferior Numerators zero.numr one.numr two.numr Encoding 23

26 three.numr four.numr five.numr six.numr seven.numr eight.numr nine.numr Denominators zero.dnom one.dnom two.dnom three.dnom four.dnom five.dnom six.dnom seven.dnom eight.dnom nine.dnom Cap numerators zero.capnumr one.capnumr two.capnumr three.capnumr four.capnumr five.capnumr six.capnumr seven.capnumr eight.capnumr nine.capnumr Cap denominators zero.capdnom one.capdnom two.capdnom three.capdnom four.capdnom five.capdnom six.capdnom seven.capdnom eight.capdnom nine.capdnom Math symbols approxequal degree divide equal greater greaterequal less lessequal logicalnot lozenge minus multiply notequal plus plusminus product summation uni00b5 (math mu) uni2206 (increment, i.e. the math cap delta) uni2126 (ohm sign) infinity Cap math symbols approxequal.cap degree.cap divide.cap equal.cap greater.cap greaterequal.cap less.cap lessequal.cap logicalnot.cap lozenge.cap minus.cap multiply.cap notequal.cap plus.cap plusminus.cap product.cap summation.cap degree.cap infinity.cap Currency cent currency dollar Euro florin sterling yen Cap currency cent.cap currency.cap dollar.cap Euro.cap florin.cap sterling.cap yen.cap Greek lowercase alpha beta gamma delta epsilon zeta eta theta iota kappa lambda mu nu xi omicron pi rho sigma uni03c2 (final sigma) tau upsilon phi phi.alt chi psi omega alphatonos epsilontonos etatonos iotatonos iotadieresis iotadieresistonos omicrontonos upsilontonos upsilondieresistonos upsilondieresis omegatonos Greek capitals Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda Mu Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega Alphatonos Epsilontonos Etatonos Iotatonos Iotadieresis Omicrontonos Upsilontonos Upsilondieresis Omegatonos Greek small caps Alpha.sc Beta.sc Gamma.sc Delta.sc Epsilon.sc Zeta.sc Eta.sc Theta.sc Iota.sc Kappa.sc Lambda.sc Mu.sc Nu.sc Xi.sc Omicron.sc Pi.sc Rho.sc Sigma.sc Tau.sc Upsilon.sc Phi.sc Chi.sc Psi.sc Omega.sc Alphatonos.sc Epsilontonos.sc Etatonos.sc Iotatonos.sc Iotadieresis.sc Iotadieresistonos.sc Omicrontonos.sc Upsilontonos.sc Upsilondieresis.sc Upsilondieresistonos.sc Omegatonos.sc Greek accents tonos dieresistonos dieresistonoscomb anoteleia Greek punctuation uni037e (greek question mark) uni0374 (numeral sign) uni0375 (lower numeral sign) uni2015 Varient Greek letterforms uni03d5 (varient phi) uni03d6 (varient pi) Encoding 24

27 Bibliography Arditi, A., R. Cagenello, et al. (1995). Letter Strokewidth, Spacing, and Legibility. Vision Science and Its Applications, Santa Fe, NM, Optical Society of America. Shaw, A. (1969). Print for partial sight: a report to the Library Association Sub- Committee on Books for Readers with Defective Sight. London, Library Association. Bibliography 25