Handbook of Data Communications and Networks

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1 Handbook of Data Communications and Networks

2 Handbook of Data Communications and Networks by Bill Buchanan Napier University '' ~ SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

3 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN DOI / ISBN (ebook) Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved 1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston in 1999 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.

0 Table of Contents Preface xxi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 A little bit ofhistory 1 1.3 Infonnation 7 1.4 Conversion to digital 8 1.5 Sampling theory 9 1.

4 0 Table of Contents Preface xxi 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction A little bit ofhistory Infonnation Conversion to digital Sampling theory Quantization 10 2 COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES I Introduction Compression methods Letter probabilities Coding methods Statistical encoding Repetitive sequence suppression Differential encoding Transfonn encoding Letter probability program 22 3 HUFFMAN/LEMPEL-ZIV COMPRESSION METHODS I Introduction Huffman coding Adaptive Huffinan coding Lempel-Ziv coding Lempel-Ziv-Welsh coding Variable-length-code LZW compression Disadvantages with LZ compression Practical Lempel-Ziv/Huffman coding 28 4 IMAGE COMPRESSION (GIF/TIFF/PCX) Introduction Comparison of the different methods GIF coding TIFF coding G IF interlaced images PCX coding 48 5 IMAGE COMPRESSION (JPEG) Introduction 51 Vll

5 viii Contents 5.2 JPEG coding JPEG decoding JPEG file format JPEG modes 67 6 VIDEO SIGNALS Introduction Color-difference signals Quadrature modulation Baseband video signals Extra notes 77 7 DIGITAL TV Introduction Hz pictures Analogue component hybrid systems Compressed TV HDTV quality 81 8 MOTION VIDEO COMPRESSION Motion video MPEG-1 overview MPEG-1 video compression MPEG-1 compression process MPEG-1 decoder MPEG-1 audio compression MPEG MPEG-2 system layer Other MPEG-2 enhancements MPEG-2 bit rate Practical MPEG compression process 93 9 SPEECH AND AUDIO SIGNALS Introduction PCM parameters Differential encoding Speech compression A-Law and 11-Law companding Speech sampling PCM-TDM systems AUDIO SIGNALS Introduction :2 Principles Digital audio standards Error control Interleaving 117

6 Contents IX 10.6 CD audio system Digital audio compression The 44.1 khz sampling rate AUDIO COMPRESSION (MPEG-AUDIO AND DOLBY AC-3) Introduction Psycho-acoustic model MPEG audio coding Backward/forward adaptive bit allocation methods Comparison between forward and backward adaptive methods Dolby AC-1 and AC Dolby AC-3 coding AC-3 parameters ERROR CODING PRINCIPLES Introduction Modulo-2 arithmetic Binary manipulation Hamming distance General probability theory Error probability Combinations of errors Linear and cyclic codes Block and convolutional coding Systematic and unsystematic coding Feedforward and feedback error correction Error types Coding gain ERROR CODING (DETECTION) Introduction Parity Block parity Checksum Cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) ERROR CODING (CORRECTION) Introduction Longitudinal/vertical redundancy checks (LRC!VRC) Hamming code Representations of Hamming code Single error correction/double error detection Hamming code Reed-Solomon coding Convolution codes DATA ENCRYPTION PRINCIPLES Introduction 170

7 X Contents 15.2 Government pressure Cryptography Legal issues Basic encryption principles DATA ENCRYPTION Introduction Cracking the code Random number generators Survey of private-key cryptosystems Private-key encryption PUBLIC-KEY ENCRYPTION Introduction RSA TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP) AND INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) Introduction TCP/IP gateways and hosts Function of the IP protocol Internet datagram ICMP TCP/IP internets Domain name system Internet naming structure Domain name server Bootp protocol Example network TCP, IP VER6 AND TCPIIP COMMAND Introduction IP Ver Transmission control protocol TCP/IP commands WINSOCK PROGRAMMING Introduction Windows Sockets ELECTRONIC MAIL Introduction Shared-file approach versus client/server approach Electronic mail overview Internet address SMTP X

8 Contents xi 21.7 MIME THE WORLD WIDE WEB Introduction Advantages and disadvantages ofthe WWW Client/server architecture Web browsers Internet resources Universal resource locators (URLs) Universal resource identifier INTRANETS Introduction Firewalls Extranets Network security HTTP Introduction HTTP operation Intermediate systems Cache HTML messages HTML (INTRODUCTION) Introduction Links Lists Colors Background images Displaying images Horizontal lines HTML (TABLES, FORMS AND HELPERS) Introduction Anchors Tables CGI scripts Forms Multimedia JAVA (INTRODUCTION) Introduction Standalone programs Data types Characters and strings Java operators 298

9 xii Contents 27.6 Selection statements Loops Classes Constructors Method overloading Static methods Constants Package statements Import statements Mathematical operations Arrays JAVA (EVENTS AND WINDOWS) Introduction Applet tag Creating an applet Applet basics The paint() object Java events Java 1.0 and Java Initialization and exit methods Mouse events in Java Mouse event handling in Java Mouse selection in Java Keyboard input in Java Keyboard events in Java Buttons and events Action with Java Action Listener in Java Checkboxes Item listener in Java Radio buttons Pop-up menu choices Other pop-up menu options Multiple menus Menu bar List box File dialog JAVA (NETWORKING) Introduction Java networking functions Connecting to a WWW site Socket programming Creating a socket Client/server program 374

10 Contents xiii 30 JAVASCRIPT Introduction JavaScript values, variables and literals Expressions and operators JavaScript operators JavaScript statements Conditional statements Loops Comments Functions Objects and properties WINDOWS 95/98/NT Introduction Windows registry Device drivers Configuration Manager Virtual Machine Manager (VMM) Multiple file systems Core system components Multitasking and threading Plug-and-play process Windows NT architecture Novell NetWare networking Servers, workstations and clients Workgroups and domains User and group accounts New user accounts File systems Windows NT networking Setting up TCP/IP networking on Windows NT Windows sockets Robust networking Security model TCP/IP applications Windows NT network drives NETWARE Novell Net Ware networking NetWare and TCP/IP integration NetWare architecture NetWare protocols IPX Novel NetWare setup NetWare

11 XIV Contents 33 UNIX Introduction Network setup TCP/IP protocols NFS Network configuration files XDR fonnat X-WINDOWS Introduction Fundamentals of X Network aspects of X History of X X system programs NETWORKING ELEMENTS Introduction OSI model Communications standards and the OSI model Standards agencies Network cable types LAN topology Internetworking connections Network topologies Network loading INTERNET ROUTING PROTOCOLS Introduction RIP OSPF EGP/BGP BGP specification SNMP, WINS AND DHCP Introduction SNMP RMON (Remote Monitoring) EASE (Embedded Advanced Sampling Environment) DHCP WINS ETHERNET I Introduction IEEE standards Ethernet- media access control (MAC) layer IEEE and Ethernet SNAP OSI and the IEEE standard 501

12 Contents XV 38.6 Ethernet transceivers NIC Standard Ethernet limitations Ethernet types Twisted-pair hubs Ethernet security FAST ETHERNET AND SWITCHES Introduction BASE-4T OOVG-AnyLAN Switches and switching hubs Comparison of Fast Ethernet TOKEN RING Introduction Operation Token Ring- media access control (MAC) Token Ring maintenance Token Ring multistation access units (MAUs) Cabling and connectors Repeaters Jitter suppression FOOl Introduction Operation FDDI layers SMT protocol Physical connection management Fault tolerance method FDDI token format FDDI Frame format MAC protocol Applications offddi networks FDDI backbone network FDDimedia FDDI attachments FDDI specification FDDI-II Standards Practical FDDI network- EaStMAN ATM Introduction Real-time sampling PCM-TDM systems and ISDN 547

13 xvi Contents 42.4 Objectives of A TM A TM versus ISDN and PCM-TOM Statistical multiplexing A TM user network interfaces (UNls) ATM cells Routing cell within an A TM network Virtual channels and virtual paths A TM and the OSI modem A TM physical layer AAL service levels A TM flow control Practical A TM networks ISDN Introduction ISDN channels ISDN physical layer interfacing ISDN data link layer ISDN network layer HDLC Introduction HDLC protocol Transparency Flow control Derivatives of HDLC X Introduction Packet-switching and the OSI model X.25 packets X.25 packet flow Packet switching routing Logical channels X.25 node addressing MODEMS Introduction RS-232 communications Modem standards Modem commands Modem setups Modem indicators Profile viewing Test modes Digital modulation Typical modems 606

14 Contents xvii Fax transmission RS Introduction Electrical characteristics Frame format Communications between two nodes Programming RS RS-232 programs Standard Windows serial communications programs Direct Connect INTERRUPT -DRIVEN RS Interrupt-driven RS Win32 programs DOS-based RS-232 program VISUAL BASIC RS Introduction Communications control Properties Events Example program Error messages RS-232 polling PARALLEL PORT Introduction Data handshaking /0 addressing INTERRUPT-DRIVEN PARALLEL PORT Introduction Interrupts Example program Program explanation ENHANCED PARALLEL PORT Introduction IEEE 1284 Data Transfer Modes Compatibility mode Nibble mode Byte mode EPP ECP Negotiation 674

15 xviii Contents 53 INTERFACING STANDARDS Introduction PC bus ISA bus MCA bus EISA bus Comparison of different types LOCAL BUS AND PC MOTHERBOARD Introduction VESA VL-local bus PCI bus HX motherboard Example manufacturer and plug-and-play IDs IDE AND MASS STORAGE Introduction Tracks and sectors Floppy disks Fixed disks Drive specifications Hard disk/cd-rom interfaces IDE interface IDE communication Optical storage Magnetic tape SCSI Introduction SCSI types SCSI Interface SCSI operation SCSI pointers Message system description SCSI commands Status PCMCIA Introduction PCMCIA signals PCMCIA registers CABLE SPECIFICATIONS Introduction FIBER OPTIC SYSTEMS Introduction 750

16 Contents xix 59.2 Light parameters Light emitting diode (LED)/ Injection Laser Diode (ILD) Photodiodes Fiber optics Typical optical fiber characteristics Advantages of fiber optics over copper conductors LINE CODES Introduction NRZI DSV /58 code EFM (eight-to-fourteen modulation) T /10 code TRANSMISSION LINES Introduction Equivalent circuit Speed of propagation Transmission line reflections Matching terminations Open and short circuit terminations 777 A ASCII CODING 779 A.l International alphabet No A.2 Extended ASCII code RLE PROGRAM 783 B.l RLE program 783 c SNR FOR PCM 786 C. I SNR 786 D RFC STANDARDS 788 E UNIX NETWORK STARTUP FILES 798 E. I netnfsrc file 798 E.2 rc file 802 F ETHERNET MONITORING SYSTEM 806 F.l Ethernet receiver 806 G RS-232 AND PARALLEL PORT 808 G.l RS G.2 Parallel port 809

17 XX Contents G.4 Parallel port connection 812 G.5 RS-232C interface 814 G.6 RS-449 interface 814 H MODEM CODES 816 H.1 AT commands 816 H.2 Result codes 819 H.3 S-registers 820 PC INTERFACING AND INTERRUPTS Software Interrupts Hardware Interrupts 826 I.3 Interfacing 832 J PC PROCESSORS I Introduction 839 J microprocessor 840 J.3 Memory segmentation / Pentium/Pentium Pro Intel processor development Terms 854 J.8 Pentium II and Pentium Pro System overview Memory address reference 856 K HTML REFERENCE 857 K.1 Introduction 857 K.2 Document structure and block structuring 861 L JAVA REFERENCE 864 L.1 Package java.applet 864 L.2 Package java.awt 865 L.3 Package java.awt.datatransfer 886 LA Package java.awt.event 886 L.5 Package java.awt.image 891 L.6 Packagejava.io 891 L.7 Package java. lang 902 L.8 Package java.net 915 L.9 Package java.utils 917 GLOSSARY 922 ABBREVIATIONS 939 MISCELLANEOUS AND QUICK REFERENCE 946 ADDITIONAL MATERIAL 958 Index 1070 Appendix 1097

Preface Data communications and networks are two of the fastest growing technological areas. This is because there is an almost unlimited demand for information transfer.

18 Preface Data communications and networks are two of the fastest growing technological areas. This is because there is an almost unlimited demand for information transfer. Increased transfer rates give the opportunity for better applications and improved opportunities. These improvements lead to an increased demand for communications, and so on. Most people in business would now agree that networks and data communications makes their work easier and increases their productivity. Communication systems now cover many important areas of modem life. Without them, there would be no A TM bank services, no Internet, no video conferencing and no electronic mail. Ask most organizations about what their most important resources were and many would say that their communications infrastructure was the most important. Without it, they could not effectively communicate, and business needs good and reliable communications. Within a few years, the most important component in a computer system will not be the processor or the amount of memory it is has, it will be its link to the network. Computers systems will become just another part of a local and a global communications network. It must also be said that communications is making the world a smaller place. It is reducing the influence that governments and organizations have on our life and makes it much easier for us search and retrieve information. One thing that has changed in the modem working environment is that professionals need to be skilled in many different areas. The days of job demarcation are receding fast. Most technical people now require to be multi-skilled, in both hardware and software. They do not necessarily need to know exactly how to design an application program or how to design an electronic circuit, but they do need to know how systems fit together and how applications run. Thus a fault on a network could be caused by a faulty IC, or a cable break, or an electrical short-circuit, a network protocol error, or an application software error, and so on. Thus, professionals must be able to visualize communication systems from the hardware level right up to the application level. Failure to do this, results in badly designed systems or badly planned and maintained networks, or even inefficient working. The object of this book is to cover most of the currently relevant areas of data communications and networks. These include: Communications protocols (especially TCP/IP). Networking (especially in Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, FDDI and ATM). Networking operating systems (especially in Windows NT, Novell NetWare and UNIX). Communications programs (especially in serial communications, parallel communications and TCP/IP). Computer hardware (especially in PC hardware, serial communications and parallel communication). The book thus splits into 15 different areas, these are: xxi

19 XXIJ Handbook of data communications and networks General data compression (Chapters 2 and 3). Video, images and sound (Chapters 4-11 ). Error coding and encryption (Chapters 12-17). TCP/IP, WWW, Internets and Intranets (Chapters and 23). Electronic Mail (Chapter 21 ). HTML (Chapters 25 and 26). Java (Chapters 27-29). Communication Programs (Chapters 20, 29 and 49). Network Operating Systems (Chapters 31-34). LANs/WANs (Chapters 35, 38-46). Serial Communications (Chapters 47 and 48). Parallel Communications (Chapters 50-52). Local Communications (Chapters 53-57). Routing and Protocols (Chapters 36 and 37). Cables and connectors (Chapters ). Many handbooks and reference guides on the market contain endless tables and mathematics, or are dry to read and contain very little insight in their subject area. I have tried to make this book readable, but also contain key information which can be used by professionals. I believe there are very few books which cover the amount of areas in this book, and many more areas are included on the WWW site and the associated CD-ROM. Further information and source code can be found at: Help can be sought using the address: w.buchanan@napier.ac.uk Dr. William Buchanan, Senior Lecturer, Napier University, 219 Colinton Road, Edinburgh. Trademarks Intel, Pentium and Pentium Pro are registered trademarks oflntel Corporation. CompuServe is a registered trademark of CompuServe Incorporated. IBM, PS/2 and PC/XT are trademarks oflnternational Business Machines. Microsoft is a registered trademark. Win32, Win32s, DOS, MS-DOS, Windows, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Internet Explorer, Visual Basic, and Visual C++ are trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. Turbo Pascal, Turbo Debugger and Borland C++ are trademarks of Borland International Incorporated. Unix, Novell and NetWare are trademarks of Novell Incorporated. Java is a trademark of Sun Microsystems Incorporated. ANSIM is a trademark of American National Standards Institute. Netscape Communicator is a trademark ofnetscape Communications Incorporated.

COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES

COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES Table of Contents Preface xvii INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 A little bit of history 1 1.3 Information 8 1.4 Digital versus analogue 9 1.5 Conversion to digital 10 1.6 Sampling theory 11 1.7 Quantization