The Big Picture: Where are We Now? CS152 Computer Architecture and Engineering Lecture 24. I/O Systems II

Transcription

1 The Big Picture: Where are We Now? CS52 Computer Architecture and Engineering Lecture 24 I/O Systems II Today s Topic: I/O Systems Processor Input Control Memory Network/Bus Input Memory Processor Control Datapath Output Output Datapath November 24, 999 John Kubiatowicz (http.cs.berkeley.edu/~kubitron) lecture slides: Lec24. Lec24.2 Outline of Today s Lecture Organization of a Hard Magnetic Disk Basic behavior of disks Queueing theory. Platters Interfacing between processor and I/O devices Track RAID disk arrays Summary Lec24.3 Sector Typical numbers (depending on the disk size): 5 to 2, tracks per surface 32 to 28 sectors per track - A sector is the smallest unit that can be read or written Traditionally all tracks have the same number of sectors: Constant bit density: record more sectors on the outer tracks Recently relaxed: constant bit size, speed varies with track location Lec24.4

2 Magnetic Disk Characteristic Cylinder: all the tacks under the head at a given point on all surface Read/write data is a three-stage process: Seek time: position the arm over the proper track Rotational latency: wait for the desired sector to rotate under the read/write head Transfer time: transfer a block of bits (sector) under the read-write head Head Average seek time as reported by the industry: Typically in the range of 8 ms to 2 ms (Sum of the time for all possible seek) / (total # of possible seeks) Due to locality of disk reference, actual average seek time may: Only be 25% to 33% of the advertised number Track Sector Cylinder Platter Typical Numbers of a Magnetic Disk Rotational Latency: Most disks rotate at 3,6 to 72 RPM Approximately 6 ms to 8 ms per revolution, respectively An average latency to the desired information is halfway around the disk: 8 ms at 36 RPM, 4 ms at 72 RPM Transfer Time is a function of : Transfer size (usually a sector): KB / sector Rotation speed: 36 RPM to RPM Recording density: bits per inch on a track Diameter typical diameter ranges from 2.5 to 5.25 in Typical values: 2 to 4 MB per second Head Track Sector Cylinder Platter Lec24.5 Lec24.6 Disk I/O Performance Review: Disk Device Terminology Request Rate Service Rate Processor λ µ Queue Disk Disk Queue Disk Disk Disk Access Time = Seek time + Rotational Latency + Transfer time + Time + Queueing Delay Disk Latency = Queueing Time + time + Seek Time + Rotation Time + Xfer Time Estimating Queue Length: Utilization = U = Request Rate / Service Rate Mean Queue Length = U / ( - U) As Request Rate -> Service Rate - Mean Queue Length -> Infinity Order of magnitude times for 4K byte transfers: Average Seek: 8 ms or less Rotate: rpm Xfer: 72 rpm Lec24.7 Lec24.8

3 Example Reliability and Availability 52 byte sector, rotate at 54 RPM, advertised seeks is 2 ms, transfer rate is 4 MB/sec, controller overhead is ms, queue idle so no service time Disk Access Time = Seek time + Rotational Latency + Transfer time + Time + Queueing Delay Disk Access Time = 2 ms +.5 / 54 RPM +.5 KB / 4 MB/s + ms + Disk Access Time = 2 ms +.5 / 9 RPS +.25 / 24 s + ms + Disk Access Time = 2 ms ms +. ms + ms + ms Disk Access Time = 8.6 ms If real seeks are /3 advertised seeks, then its.6 ms, with rotation delay at 5% of the time! Two terms that are often confused: Reliability: Is anything broken? Availability: Is the system still available to the user? Availability can be improved by adding hardware: Example: adding ECC on memory Reliability can only be improved by: Better environmental conditions Building more reliable components Building with fewer components - Improve availability may come at the cost of lower reliability Lec24.9 Lec24. Simple Producer-Server Model Disk I/O Performance Producer Queue Server Metrics: Response Time Throughput 3 2 Response Time (ms) Throughput: The number of tasks completed by the server in unit time In order to get the highest possible throughput: - The server should never be idle - The queue should never be empty Response time: Begins when a task is placed in the queue Ends when it is completed by the server In order to minimize the response time: - The queue should be empty - The server will be idle Lec24. Proc Queue Response time = Queue + Device Service time % IOC Throughput (% total BW) Device % Lec24.2

4 Response Time vs. Productivity Interactive environments: Each interaction or transaction has 3 parts: Entry Time: time for user to enter command System Response Time: time between user entry & system replies Think Time: Time from response until user begins next command st transaction: 2nd transaction: What happens to transaction time as shrink system response time from. sec to.3 sec? With Keyboard: 4. sec entry, 9.4 sec think time With Graphics:.25 sec entry,.6 sec think time Lec24.3 Response Time & Productivity conventional.3s conventional.s graphics.3s graphics.s Time entry resp think.7sec off response saves 4.9 sec (34%) and 2. sec (7%) total time per transaction => greater productivity Another study: everyone gets more done with faster response, but novice with fast response = expert with slow Lec24.4 Administrivia Get your project entered on web page! I will remove the ability to enter new projects soon (won t be able to submit final report) Please take time to enter reasonable title: no trademarked names! Should have two or three sentence description Pending schedule: Monday /29: no class -- work on projects. Monday /29: Update on design due to TAs Wednesday 2/: Last class (wrap up, evaluations, etc) Monday 2/6 Oral reports: -2am and 2-4pm - Signup sheet will be on my office door next week - Project reports must be submitted via web by 5pm on 2/6 Friday 2/: Grades ready System for examining grades is up Victor posted description of how to use it on the newsgroup Solutions to Midterm II not up yet (sorry!) Lec24.5 Computers in the News: Electronic Ink Electronic Ink: Little capsules with charged balls that are half black/half white Placing an electronic charge of one polarity makes dot black and the other polarity makes it white. Flexible, cheap, paper-like displays! Schematic Diagram Electron Micrograph Lec24.6

5 7 Talk Commandments for a Bad Talk I. Thou shalt not illustrate. II. Thou shalt not covet brevity. III. Thou shalt not print large. IV. Thou shalt not use color. V. Thou shalt not skip slides in a long talk. VI. Thou shalt cover thy naked slides. VII. Thou shalt not practice. Following all the commandments We describe the philosophy and design of the control flow machine, and present the results of detailed simulations of the performance of a single processing element. Each factor is compared with the measured performance of an advanced von Neumann computer running equivalent code. It is shown that the control flow processor compares favorablylism in the program. We present a denotational semantics for a logic program to construct a control flow for the logic program. The control flow is defined as an algebraic manipulator of idempotent substitutions and it virtually reflects the resolution deductions. We also present a bottom-up compilation of medium grain clusters from a fine grain control flow graph. We compare the basic block and the dependence sets algorithms that partition control flow graphs into clusters. Our compiling strategy is to exploit coarse-grain parallelism at function application level: and the function application level parallelism is implemented by fork-join mechanism. The compiler translates source programs into control flow graphs based on analyzing flow of control, and then serializes instructions within graphs according to flow arcs such that function applications, which have no control dependency, are executed in parallel. A hierarchical macro-control-flow computation allows them to exploit the coarse grain parallelism inside a macrotask, such as a subroutine or a loop, hierarchically. We use a hierarchical definition of macrotasks, a parallelism extraction scheme among macrotasks defined inside an upper layer macrotask, and a scheduling scheme which assigns hierarchical macrotasks on hierarchical clusters. We apply a parallel simulation scheme to a real problem: the simulation of a control flow architecture, and we compare the performance of this simulator with that of a sequential one. Moreover, we investigate the effect of modelling the application on the performance of the simulator. Our study indicates that parallel simulation can reduce the execution time significantly if appropriate modelling is used. We have demonstrated that to achieve the best execution time for a control flow program, the number of nodes within the system and the type of mapping scheme used are particularly important. In addition, we observe that a large number of subsystem nodes allows more actors to be fired concurrently, but the communication overhead in passing control tokens to their destination nodes causes the overall execution time to increase substantially. The relationship between the mapping scheme employed and locality effect in a program are discussed. The mapping scheme employed has to exhibit a strong locality effect in order to allow efficient execution. We assess the average number of instructions in a cluster and the reduction in matching operations compared with fine grain control flow execution. Medium grain execution can benefit from a higher output bandwidth of a processor and finally, a simple superscalar processor with an issue rate of ten is sufficient to exploit the internal parallelism of a cluster. Although the technique does not exhaustively detect all possible errors, it detects nontrivial errors with a worst-case complexity quadratic to the system size. It can be automated and applied to systems with arbitrary loops and nondeterminism. Lec24.7 Lec24.8 Alternatives to a Bad Talk Practice, Practice, Practice! Use casette tape recorder to listen, practice Try videotaping Seek feedback from friends Use phrases, not sentences Notes separate from slides (don t read slide) Pick appropriate font, size (~ 24 point to 32 point) Estimate talk length - 2 minutes per slide Use extras as backup slides (Question and Answer) Use color tastefully (graphs, emphasis) Don t cover slides Use overlays or builds in powerpoint Go to room early to find out what is WRONG with setup Beware: PC projection + dark rooms after meal! Lec24.9 Include in your final presentation Who is on team, and who did what Everyone should say something High-level description of what you did and how you combined components together Use block diagrams rather than detailed schematics Assume audience knows Chapters 6 and 7 already Include novel aspects of design Did you innovate? How? Why did you choose to do things the way that you did? Give Critical Path and Clock cycle time Bring paper copy of schematics in case there are detailed questions. What could be done to improve clock cycle time? Description of testing philosophy! Mystery program statistics: instructions, clock cycles, CPI, why stalls occur (cache miss, load-use interlocks, branch mispredictions,... ) Lessons learned, what might do different next time Lec24.2

6 Introduction to Queueing Theory A Little Queuing Theory: Notation Arrivals Black Box Queueing System Departures System Queue server Proc IOC Device Queueing Theory applies to long term, steady state behavior Arrival rate = Departure rate Little s Law: Mean number tasks in system = arrival rate x mean reponse time Observed by many, Little was first to prove Simple interpretation: you should see the same number of tasks in queue when entering as when leaving. Applies to any system in equilibrium, as long as nothing in black box is creating or destroying tasks Lec24.2 Queuing models assume state of equilibrium: input rate = output rate Notation: λ average number of arriving customers/second T ser average time to service a customer (tradtionally µ = / T ser ) u server utilization (..): u = λ x T (or u = λ / µ ) ser T q average time/customer in queue T sys average time/customer in system: T sys = T q + T ser L q average length of queue: L q = λ x T q L sys average length of system: L sys = λ x T sys Little s Law: L sys = λ x T sys (Mean number customers = arrival rate x mean service time) Lec24.22 A Little Queuing Theory: Use of random distributions A Little Queuing Theory: Variable Service Time System Queue server Proc IOC Device Avg. System Queue server Proc IOC Device Server spends a variable amount of time with customers Weighted mean m = (f x T + f2 x T fn x Tn)/F = Σ p(t)xt variance = (f x T 2 + f2 x T fn x Tn 2 )/F m 2 = Σ p(t)xt 2 - m 2 Squared coefficient of variance: C = variance/m 2 - Unitless measure ( ms 2 vs.. s 2 ) Exponential distribution C = : most short relative to average, few others long; 9% < 2.3 x average, 63% < average Hypoexponential distribution C < : most close to average, C=.5 => 9% < 2. x average, only 57% < average Hyperexponential distribution C > : further from average C=2. => 9% < 2.8 x average, 69% < average Avg. Lec24.23 Disk response times C.5 (majority seeks < average) Yet usually pick C =. for simplicity Avg. Memoryless, exponential dist Many complex systems well described by memoryless distribution! Another useful value is average time Time must wait for server to complete current task: m(z) Not just /2 x m because doesn t capture variance Can derive m(z) = /2 x m x ( + C) No variance C= => m(z) = /2 x m Exponential C= => m(z) = m Lec24.24

7 A Little Queuing Theory: Average Wait Time Calculating average wait time in queue T q : If something at server, it takes to complete on average m(z) Chance server is busy = u; average delay is u x m(z) All customers in line must complete; each avg T ser T q = u x m(z) + L q x T s er T q = u x m(z) + λ x T q x T Little s Law s er T q = u x m(z) + u x T q T q x ( u) = m(z) x u Defn of utilization (u) T q = m(z) x u/(-u) = T s er x {/2 x (+C)} x u/( u)) Notation: λ average number of arriving customers/second T ser average time to service a customer u server utilization (..): u = λ x T ser T q average time/customer in queue L q average length of queue:l q = λ x T q Lec24.25 Assumptions so far: System in equilibrium Time between two successive arrivals in line are random Server can start on next customer immediately after prior finishes No limit to the queue: works First-In-First-Out Afterward, all customers in line must complete; each avg T ser Described memoryless or Markovian request arrival (M for C= exponentially random), General service distribution (no restrictions), server: M/G/ queue When Service times have C =, M/M/ queue T q = T ser x u / ( u) T ser u A Little Queuing Theory: M/G/ and M/M/ average time to service a customer server utilization (..): u = λ x T ser average time/customer in queue T q Lec24.26 A Little Queuing Theory: An Example Processor sends x 8KB disk I/Os per second, requests & service exponentially distrib., avg. disk service = 2 ms This number comes from disk equation: Service time = Ave seek + ave rot delay + transfer time + ctrl overhead On average, how utilized is the disk? What is the number of requests in the queue? What is the average time spent in the queue? What is the average response time for a disk request? Notation: λ average number of arriving customers/second = T ser average time to service a customer = 2 ms (.2s) u server utilization (..): u = λ x T ser = /s x.2s =.2 T q average time/customer in queue = T ser x u / ( u) = 2 x.2/(-.2) = 2 x.25 = 5 ms (.5s) T sys average time/customer in system: T sys =T q +T ser = 25 ms L q average length of queue:l q = λ x T q = /s x.5s =.5 requests in queue L sys average # tasks in system: L sys = λ x T sys = /s x.25s =.25 Lec24.27 Giving Commands to I/O Devices Two methods are used to address the device: Special I/O instructions Memory-mapped I/O Special I/O instructions specify: Both the device number and the command word - Device number: the processor communicates this via a set of wires normally included as part of the I/O bus - Command word: this is usually send on the bus s data lines Memory-mapped I/O: Portions of the address space are assigned to I/O device Read and writes to those addresses are interpreted as commands to the I/O devices User programs are prevented from issuing I/O operations directly: - The I/O address space is protected by the address translation Lec24.28

8 Memory Mapped I/O I/O Device Notifying the OS Memory CPU $ CPU Interface Peripheral Single Memory & I/O Bus No Separate I/O Instructions Interface Peripheral ROM RAM I/O The OS needs to know when: The I/O device has completed an operation The I/O operation has encountered an error This can be accomplished in two different ways I/O Interrupt: - Whenever an I/O device needs attention from the processor, it interrupts the processor from what it is currently doing. Polling: - The I/O device put information in a status register - The OS periodically check the status register L2 $ Memory Bus I/O bus Memory Bus Adaptor Lec24.29 Lec24.3 I/O Interrupt An I/O interrupt is just like the exceptions except: An I/O interrupt is asynchronous Further information needs to be conveyed An I/O interrupt is asynchronous with respect to instruction execution: I/O interrupt is not associated with any instruction I/O interrupt does not prevent any instruction from completion - You can pick your own convenient point to take an interrupt I/O interrupt is more complicated than exception: Needs to convey the identity of the device generating the interrupt Interrupt requests can have different urgencies: - Interrupt request needs to be prioritized Lec24.3 External Interrupt Example: Device Interrupt add $r,$r2,$r3 subi $r4,$r,#4 slli $r4,$r4,#2 Hiccup(!) lw lw add sw $r2,($r4) $r3,4($r4) $r2,$r2,$r3 8($r4),$r2 PC saved Disable All Ints Supervisor Mode Restore PC User Mode Raise priority Reenable All Ints Save registers lw $r,2($r) lw $r2,($r) addi $r3,$r,#5 sw $r3,($r) Restore registers Clear current Int Disable All Ints Restore priority RTI Advantage: User program progress is only halted during actual transfer Disadvantage, special hardware is needed to: Cause an interrupt (I/O device) Detect an interrupt (processor) Save the proper states to resume after the interrupt (processor) Interrupt Handler Lec24.32

9 Alternative: Polling Polling: Programmed I/O ([WHUQDO,QWHUUXSW Disable Network Intr subi $r4,$r,#4 slli $r4,$r4,#2 lw $r2,($r4) lw $r3,4($r4) add $r2,$r2,$r3 sw 8($r4),$r2 lw $r,2($zero) beq $r,no_mess lw $r,2($r) lw $r2,($r) addi $r3,$r,#5 sw ($r),$r3 Clear Network Intr no_mess: 3ROOLQJ3RLQW FKHFNGHYLFHUHJLVWHU +DQGOHUµ Lec24.33 Memory CPU IOC Is the data ready? yes read data Disadvantage: Polling overhead can consume a lot of CPU time no busy wait loop not an efficient way to use the CPU unless the device is very fast! but checks for I/O device completion can be dispersed among store computation data intensive code done? no Advantage: yes Simple: the processor is totally in control and does all the work Lec24.34 Polling is faster/slower than Interrupts Delegating I/O Responsibility from the CPU: DMA Polling is faster than interrupts because Compiler knows which registers in use at polling point. Hence, do not need to save and restore registers (or not as many). Other interrupt overhead avoided (pipeline flush, trap priorities, etc). Polling is slower than interrupts because Overhead of polling instructions is incurred regardless of whether or not handler is run. This could add to inner-loop delay. Device may have to wait for service for a long time. When to use one or the other? Multi-axis tradeoff - Frequent/regular events good for polling, as long as device can be controlled at user level. - Interrupts good for infrequent/irregular events - Interrupts good for ensuring regular/predictable service of events. Direct Memory Access (DMA): External to the CPU Act as a maser on the bus Transfer blocks of data to or from memory without CPU intervention CPU sends a starting address, direction, and length count to DMAC. Then issues "start". Memory CPU DMAC IOC device DMAC provides handshake signals for Peripheral, and Memory Addresses and handshake signals for Memory. Lec24.35 Lec24.36

10 Delegating I/O Responsibility from the CPU: IOP Responsibilities of the Operating System CPU Mem IOP main memory bus I/O bus D D2 Dn () Issues CPU (4) IOP interrupts instruction CPU when done to IOP IOP (2) (3) memory Device to/from memory transfers are controlled by the IOP directly. IOP steals memory cycles. target device where cmnds are OP Device Address IOP looks in memory for commands what to do OP Addr Cnt Other where to put data how much special requests Lec24.37 The operating system acts as the interface between: The I/O hardware and the program that requests I/O Three characteristics of the I/O systems: The I/O system is shared by multiple program using the processor I/O systems often use interrupts (external generated exceptions) to communicate information about I/O operations. - Interrupts must be handled by the OS because they cause a transfer to supervisor mode The low-level control of an I/O device is complex: - Managing a set of concurrent events - The requirements for correct device control are very detailed Lec24.38 Operating System Requirements OS and I/O Systems Communication Requirements Provide protection to shared I/O resources Guarantees that a user s program can only access the portions of an I/O device to which the user has rights Provides abstraction for accessing devices: Supply routines that handle low-level device operation Handles the interrupts generated by I/O devices Provide equitable access to the shared I/O resources All user programs must have equal access to the I/O resources Schedule accesses in order to enhance system throughput The Operating System must be able to prevent: The user program from communicating with the I/O device directly If user programs could perform I/O directly: Protection to the shared I/O resources could not be provided Three types of communication are required: The OS must be able to give commands to the I/O devices The I/O device must be able to notify the OS when the I/O device has completed an operation or has encountered an error Data must be transferred between memory and an I/O device Lec24.39 Lec24.4

11 Network Attached Storage Decreasing Disk Diameters OceanStore: The Oceanic Data Utility: 4"» "» 8"» 5.25"» 3.5"» 2.5"».8"».3"» high bandwidth disk systems based on arrays of disks Network provides well defined physical and logical interfaces: separate CPU and storage system! High High Performance Storage Service on on a High High Speed Speed Network Network File Services OS structures supporting remote file access 3 Mb/s» Mb/s» 5 Mb/s» Mb/s» Gb/s» Gb/s networks capable of sustaining high bandwidth transfers Increasing Network Bandwidth Lec24.4 Lec24.42 Manufacturing Advantages of Disk Arrays Small # of Large Disks Large # of Small Disks! Conventional: 4 disk designs 3.5 Disk Array: disk design Low End Disk Product Families 4 High End IBM 339 (K) Data Capacity 2 GBytes Volume 97 cu. ft. Power 3 KW Data Rate 5 MB/s I/O Rate 6 I/Os/s MTTF 25 KHrs Cost $25K Disk Arrays have potential for IBM 3.5" 6 x7 32 MBytes 23 GBytes. cu. ft. cu. ft. W KW.5 MB/s 2 MB/s 55 I/Os/s 39 IOs/s 5 KHrs??? Hrs $2K $5K large data and I/O rates high MB per cu. ft., high MB per KW reliability? Lec24.43 Lec24.44

12 Array Reliability Redundant Arrays of Disks Reliability of N disks = Reliability of Disk N 5, Hours 7 disks = 7 hours Disk system MTTF: Drops from 6 years to month! Arrays (without redundancy) too unreliable to be useful! Files are "striped" across multiple spindles Redundancy yields high data availability Disks will fail Contents reconstructed from data redundantly stored in the array Capacity penalty to store it Bandwidth penalty to update Mirroring/Shadowing (high capacity cost) Hot spares support reconstruction in in parallel with access: very high media availability can be be achieved Techniques: Horizontal Hamming Codes (overkill) Parity & Reed-Solomon Codes Failure Prediction (no capacity overhead!) VaxSimPlus Technique is controversial Lec24.45 Lec24.46 RAID : Disk Mirroring/Shadowing RAID 3: Parity Disk Each disk is fully duplicated onto its "shadow" Very high availability can be achieved Bandwidth sacrifice on write: Logical write = two physical writes Reads may be optimized recovery group Most expensive solution: % capacity overhead Targeted for high I/O rate, high availability environments Lec24.47 logical record Striped physical records Parity computed across recovery group to protect against hard disk failures 33% capacity cost for parity in this configuration wider arrays reduce capacity costs, decrease expected availability, increase reconstruction time Arms logically synchronized, spindles rotationally synchronized logically a single high capacity, high transfer rate disk Targeted for high bandwidth applications: Scientific, Image Processing P Lec24.48

13 RAID 5+: High I/O Rate Parity Problems of Disk Arrays: Small Writes RAID-5: Small Write Algorithm A logical logical write write becomes four four physical I/Os I/Os Independent writes writes possible because of of interleaved parity parity Reed-Solomon Codes Codes ("Q") ("Q") for for protection during during reconstruction Targeted for mixed applications D D D2 D3 P D4 D5 D6 P D7 D8 D9 P D D D2 P D3 D4 D5 P D6 D7 D8 D9 Increasing Logical Disk Addresses Stripe Stripe Unit D new data Logical Write = 2 Physical Reads + 2 Physical Writes + D D D2 D3 P old data XOR (. Read) old (2. Read) parity + XOR (3. Write) (4. Write) D2 D2 D22 D23 P... Disk Columns Lec24.49 D D D2 D3 P Lec24.5 Hewlett-Packard (HP) AutoRAID Subsystem Organization HP has interesting solution which combines both mirroring and RAID level 5. Dynamically adapts disk storage - For recent or highly used data, uses mirroring - For less recently used data, uses RAID 5 Gets speed of mirroring when it matters and density of RAID 5 on average host manages interface to host, DMA control, buffering, parity logic physical device control host adapter array controller single board disk controller single board disk controller single board disk controller striping software off-loaded from host to array controller no applications modifications no reduction of host performance single board disk controller often piggy-backed in small format devices Lec24.5 Lec24.52

14 System Availability: Orthogonal RAIDs System-Level Availability String String host I/O Fully dual redundant host I/O Array String String String String Array Array Goal: Goal: No No Single Single Points Points of of Failure Failure Data Recovery Group: unit of data redundancy Redundant Support Components: fans, power supplies, controller, cables End to End Data Integrity: internal parity protected data paths Lec24.53 Recovery Group... with duplicated paths, higher performance can be obtained when there are no failures Lec24.54 Summary: I/O performance limited by weakest link in chain between OS and device Queueing theory is important % utilization means very large latency Remember, for M/M/ queue (exponential source of requests/service) - queue size goes as u/(-u) - latency goes as T ser u/(-u) For M/G/ queue (more general server, exponential sources) - latency goes as m(z) x u/(-u) = T ser x {/2 x (+C)} x u/(-u) Three Components of Disk Access Time: Seek Time: advertised to be 8 to 2 ms. May be lower in real life. Rotational Latency: 4. ms at 72 RPM and 8.3 ms at 36 RPM Transfer Time: 2 to 2 MB per second I/O device notifying the operating system: Polling: it can waste a lot of processor time I/O interrupt: similar to exception except it is asynchronous Delegating I/O responsibility from the CPU: DMA, or even IOP Lec24.55