Optical Networks. A Practical Perspective. Rajiv Ramaswami Kumar N. Sivarajan MORGAN KAUFMANN PUBLISHERS
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1 Optical Networks A Practical Perspective Second Edition Rajiv Ramaswami Kumar N. Sivarajan к MORGAN KAUFMANN PUBLISHERS AN IMPRINT OF ACADEMIC PRESS A Division of Harcourt, Inc. SAN FRANCISCO SAN DIEGO NEW YORK BOSTON LONDON SYDNEY TOKYO
2 Contents Foreword ix Foreword to the First Edition xi Preface xxvii 1 Introduction to Optical Networks Telecommunications Network Architecture Services, Circuit Switching, and Packet Switching The Changing Services Landscape Optical Networks Multiplexing Techniques Second-Generation Optical Networks The Optical Layer Transparency and All-Optical Networks Optical Packet Switching Transmission Basics Wavelengths, Frequencies, and Channel Spacing Wavelength Standards Optical Power and Loss Network Evolution Early Days Multimode Fiber Single-Mode Fiber 35 xv
3 xvi CONTENTS Optical Amplifiers and WDM Beyond Transmission Links to Networks 39 Summary 40 Further Reading 41 References 42 I Technology 47 2 Propagation of Signals in Optical Fiber Light Propagation in Optical Fiber Geometrical Optics Approach Wave Theory Approach Loss and Bandwidth Bending Loss Chromatic Dispersion Chirped Gaussian Pulses Controlling the Dispersion Profile Nonlinear Effects Effective Length and Area Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Stimulated Raman Scattering Propagation in a Nonlinear Medium Self-Phase Modulation SPM-Induced Chirp for Gaussian Pulses Cross-Phase Modulation Four-Wave Mixing New Optical Fiber Types Solitons Dispersion-Managed Solitons 100 Summary 101 Further Reading 102 Problems 103 References Components Couplers Principle of Operation Conservation of Energy Ill 3.2 Isolators and Circulators Principle of Operation 113
4 CONTENTS xvii 3.3 Multiplexers and Filters Gratings Diffraction Pattern Bragg Gratings Fiber Gratings Fabry-Perot Filters Multilayer Dielectric Thin-Film Filters Mach-Zehnder Interferometers Arrayed Waveguide Grating Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter High Channel Count Multiplexer Architectures Optical Amplifiers Stimulated Emission Spontaneous Emission Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers Raman Amplifiers Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers Crosstalk in SOAs Transmitters Lasers Light-Emitting Diodes Tunable Lasers Direct and External Modulation Pump Sources for Raman Amplifiers Detectors Photodetectors Front-End Amplifiers Switches Large Optical Switches Optical Switch Technologies Large Electronic Switches Wavelength Converters Optoelectronic Approach Optical Gating Interferometric Techniques Wave Mixing 223 Summary 224 Further Reading 225 Problems 226 References 232
5 xviii CONTENTS 4 Modulation and Demodulation Modulation Signal Formats Subcarrier Modulation and Multiplexing Clipping and Intermodulation Products Applications of SCM Spectral Efficiency Optical Duobinary Modulation Optical Single Sideband Modulation Multilevel Modulation Capacity Limits of Optical Fiber Demodulation An Ideal Receiver A Practical Direct Detection Receiver Front-End Amplifier Noise APD Noise Optical Preamplifiers Bit Error Rates Coherent Detection Timing Recovery Equalization Error Detection and Correction Reed-Solomon Codes Interleaving 271 Summary 272 Further Reading 273 Problems 274 References Transmission System Engineering System Model Power Penalty Transmitter Receiver Optical Amplifiers Gain Saturation in EDFAs Gain Equalization in EDFAs Amplifier Cascades Amplifier Spacing Penalty 294
6 CONTENTS xix Power Transients and Automatic Gain Control basing Loops Crosstalk Intrachannel Crosstalk Interchannel Crosstalk Crosstalk in Networks Bidirectional Systems Crosstalk Reduction Cascaded Filters Dispersion Chromatic Dispersion Limits: NRZ Modulation Chromatic Dispersion Limits: RZ Modulation Dispersion Compensation Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD) Fiber Nonlinearities Effective Length in Amplified Systems Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Stimulated Raman Scattering Four-Wave Mixing Self-/Cross-Phase Modulation Role of Chromatic Dispersion Management Wavelength Stabilization Design of Soliton Systems Design of Dispersion-Managed Soliton Systems Overall Design Considerations Fiber Type Transmit Power and Amplifier Spacing Chromatic Dispersion Compensation Modulation Nonlinearities Interchannel Spacing and Number of Wavelengths All-Optical Networks Wavelength Planning Transparency 348 Summary 348 Further Reading 348 Problems 349 References 356
7 xx CONTENTS II Networks Client Layers of the Optical Layer SONET/SDH Multiplexing SONET/SDH Layers SONET Frame Structure SONET/SDH Physical Layer Elements of a SONET/SDH Infrastructure ATM Functions of ATM Adaptation Layers Quality of Service Flow Control Signaling and Routing IP Routing and Forwarding Quality of Service Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) Whither ATM? Storage-Area Networks ESCON Fibre Channel HIPPI Gigabit and 10-Gigabit Ethernet 398 Summary 398 Further Reading 399 Problems 399 References WDM Network Elements Optical Line Terminals Optical Line Amplifiers Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers OADM Architectures Reconfigurable OADMs Optical Crossconnects All-Optical OXC Configurations 425 Summary 428 Further Reading 430
8 CONTENTS xxi Problems 431 References WDM Network Design Cost Trade-Offs: A Detailed Ring Network Example LTD and RWA Problems Lightpath Topology Design Routing and Wavelength Assignment Wavelength Conversion Relationship to Graph Coloring Dimensioning Wavelength-Routing Networks Statistical Dimensioning Models First-Passage Model Blocking Model Maximum Load Dimensioning Models Offline Lightpath Requests Online RWA in Rings 481 Summary 482 Further Reading 484 Problems 484 References Control and Management Network Management Functions Management Framework Information Model Management Protocols Optical Layer Services and Interfacing Layers within the Optical Layer Multivendor Interoperability Performance and Fault Management The Impact of Transparency BER Measurement Optical Trace Alarm Management Data Communication Network (DCN) and Signaling Policing Optical Layer Overhead Configuration Management Equipment Management 519
9 xxii CONTENTS Connection Management Adaptation Management Optical Safety Open Fiber Control Protocol 528 Summary 530 Further Reading 531 Problems 532 References Network Survivability Basic Concepts Protection in SONET/SDH Point-to-Point Links Self-Healing Rings Unidirectional Path-Switched Rings Bidirectional Line-Switched Rings Ring Interconnection and Dual Homing Protection in IP Networks Why Optical Layer Protection Service Classes Based on Protection Optical Layer Protection Schemes OMS Protection :1 OMS Protection OMS-DPRing OMS-SPRing :N Transponder Protection OCh Dedicated Protection OCh-SPRing OCh-Mesh Protection Choice of Protection Technique Interworking between Layers 582 Summary 583 Further Reading 584 Problems 584 References Access Networks Network Architecture Overview Enhanced HFC Fiber to the Curb (FTTC) PON Evolution 609
10 CONTENTS xxiii Summary 610 Further Reading 611 Problems 611 References Photonic Packet Switching Optical Time Division Multiplexing Bit Interleaving Packet Interleaving Optical AND Gates Synchronization Tunable Delays Optical Phase Lock Loop Header Processing Buffering Output Buffering Input Buffering Recirculation Buffering Using Wavelengths for Contention Resolution Deflection Routing Burst Switching Testbeds KEOPS NTT's Optical ATM Switches BT Labs Testbeds Princeton University Testbed AON CORD 656 Summary 657 Further Reading 658 Problems 659 References 660 / 13 Deployment Considerations The Evolving Telecommunications Network The SONET/SDH Core Network Architectural Choices for Next-Generation Transport Networks Designing the Transmission Layer Using SDM Using TDM Using WDM 684
11 xxiv CONTENTS Unidirectional versus Bidirectional WDM Systems Long-Haul Networks Long-Haul Network Case Study Long-Haul Undersea Networks Metro Networks Metro Ring Case Study From Opaque Links to Agile All-Optical Networks 704 Summary 705 Further Reading 706 Problems 706 References 710 A Acronyms 711 В Symbols and Parameters 717 С Standards 721 C.l International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T) 721 C.l.l Fiber 721 C.l.2 SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) 721 C.1.3 Optical Networking 722 C.1.4 Management 722 C.2 Telcordia 723 C.2.1 Physical and Environmental 723 C.2.2 SONET 723 C.2.3 Optical Networking 724 C.3 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 724 C.3.1 SONET 724 C.3.2 ESCON and Fibre Channel 724 D Wave Equations 727 E Pulse Propagation in Optical Fiber 731 E.l Propagation of Chirped Gaussian Pulses 734 E.2 Nonlinear Effects on Pulse Propagation 735 E.3 Soliton Pulse Propagation 738 Further Reading 739 References 739 F Nonlinear Polarization 741
12 CONTENTS XXV G Multilayer Thin-Film Filters 743 G.l Wave Propagation at Dielectric Interfaces 743 G.2 Filter Design 747 References 750 H Random Variables and Processes 751 H.l Random Variables 751 H.l.l Gaussian Distribution 752 H.1.2 Maxwell Distribution 753 H.1.3 Poisson Distribution 753 H.2 Random Processes 754 H.2.1 Poisson Random Process 755 H.2.2 Gaussian Random Process 756 Further Reading 756 References 756 I Receiver Noise Statistics Shot Noise Amplifier Noise 760 References 762 Bibliography 763 Index 797
Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective
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