G64PMM - Lecture 4.1. What is Hypertext? Non-linearity! Hypertext I
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1 G64PMM - Lecture 4.1 Hypertext I What is Hypertext? Hypertext / Hypermedia Non-linear reading and writing Literary Machines! The major design paradigm in multimedia Interconnected items of information Nodes (text or other media) - represent ideas Interconnections are associations of ideas Hypertext models human thought Hypertext is not the WWW! WWW is a system that implements some aspects of hypertext 2 Non-linearity! 3
2 Vanevar Bush Douglas Engelbart Ted Nelson Hypertext People The WWW Tim Berners Lee / Robert Cailliau Marc Andreessen 4 Vanevar Bush ( ) Distinguished electrical engineer Developed analogue computing machines in 1920 s and 1930 s US government administrator 1939 onwards Senior scientific administrator during WWII Published As We May Think in 1945 Designed Memex - information management machine 5 As We May Think...our methods of transmitting and reviewing the results of research are generations old and by now are totally inadequate for their purpose. V. Bush, (1945) As We May Think, section 1. It (the human mind) operates by association. With one item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by the association of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the brain. V. Bush, (1945) As We May Think, section 6. 6
3 Memex Machine hypothesised in As We May Think (never built) Automated microfilm reader Stores books, images, personal records and communications Central repository of knowledge Indexes, links, trails bookmarks 7 Memex When the user is building a trail, he names it, inserts the name in his code book, and taps it out on his keyboard. Before him are the two items to be joined, projected onto adjacent viewing positions. At the bottom of each there are a number of blank code spaces, and a pointer is set to indicate one of these on each item. The user taps a single key, Machine hypothesised in As We May Think and (never the items built) are permanently joined [...] Automated microfilm reader can be instantly recalled merely by tapping a button below the Stores books, images, personal records and communications Central repository of knowledge to form Indexes, a new book. links, trails bookmarks Thereafter, at any time, when one of these items is in view, the other corresponding code space. Moreover, when numerous items have been thus joined together to form a trail, they can be reviewed in turn, rapidly or slowly, by deflecting a lever like that used for turning the pages of a book. It is exactly as though the physical items had been gathered together from widely separated sources and bound together Extract from As We May Think 8 Douglas Engelbart (b. 1925) Engineer / instrumentation expert Inspired by Bush to build interactive computers Augmentation of human intellect NLS (on Line System) developed at Augmentation Research Center in Stamford Research Institute during 1960 s Invented almost every major paradigm of multimedia - hardware and software! 9
4 NLS (on Line System) First multimedia system Experimental office system Augment capabilities of knowledge workers Features Bitmapped Screens Mouse Keyboard and Chord Keyboard Networking over telephone lines Video / audio conferencing 10 NLS Project User Interface Graphical user interface Multiple windows Selectable text Hierarchical menus Word processing Demonstrated at 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference Video available on WWW Many of the developers subsequently moved to Xerox PARC 11 Augmentation Systems Systems that augment the human intellect Improving the use made of intellect Get better results from any group of people NLS provides an online system for deep collaborative thinking Records who contributes what to communal thought Modern multimedia systems are heavily influenced by this BUT differ fundamentally they are based around improving existing technology, Engelbart creates completely new technologies and paradigms. 12
5 Ted Nelson (b. 1935) Philosopher/technologist Coined the word Hypertext Also many other words in hypertext lexicon Project Xanadu The original hypertext project 1960-today Ideas described in books: Computer Lib / Dream Machines (1974) Literary Machines (1981) ZigZag (current ongoing project) 13 Project Xanadu Ted Nelson s original vision of hypertext Long running development project (1960 s till recently) Never used, but massively influential At one time commercial, code now released as open source 14 The Xanadu Model (1) Information stored as a connected literature rather than as files Information may be created, accessed and manipulated from anywhere in the world. Documents are permanent (nothing is deleted) Document versions may be tracked 15
6 The Xanadu Model (2) Documents only exist once (no copies) People may create virtual copies - transclusions -of information Rights are managed Documents may be linked Links are unbreakable Links are two-way Tumbler codes (dotted strings of numbers) specify any part of any document - down to the bit 16 What is Xanadu? Briefly - according to Ted: A system for the network sale of documents with automatic royalty on every byte The transclusion feature allows quotation of fragments of any size with royalty to the original publisher This is an implementation of a connected literature It is a system for a point-and-click universe It is a completely interactive docuverse 17 18
7 Major Hypertext Systems FRESS (1967) File Retrieval and Editing System Mainframes ZOG (1972) Mainframes KMS (1981) Knowledge Management System Sun/Apollo workstations Notecard (1985) Xerox PARC Intermedia (1985) Macintosh Guide (1986) Unix later Macintosh & Windows Hypercard (1987) Macintosh Microcosm (1990) Windows 3.1 World Wide Web (1992) Distributed 19 The World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee & Robert Cailliau, CERN ENQUIRE (1989) Hypertext Documentation System World Wide Web (1992) Extremely simple Implements a few aspects of Xanadu Three standards URL HTTP HTML 20 21
8 Web Browsers Marc Andreessen & Eric Bina Students in University of Illinois Part time programmers in NCSA (National Center for Supercomputer Applications) Mosaic Web Browser (1993) Mosaic Implements parts of Xanadu Integrated (inline) graphics Multiple platforms Unix Windows Macintosh Archimedes 22 Development of Web Browsers NCSA Mosaic Netscape Navigator (1994) Based upon Mosaic, written mostly by the same people Spyglass Mosaic (1994) Commercial version of NCSA Mosaic Licensed to Microsoft - became Internet Explorer Browser Wars! 23 Web Browsers Today MS Internet Explorer (Windows - Mac version obsolete) Netscape Commercial version died and has been resurrected Mozilla (all platforms) Open source Netscape Spin-offs - Firefox, Camino, Galeon, Skipstone, Salamander, Epiphany, K-meleon, Aphrodite, Beonex, IBM Web Browser & many others Opera (all platforms) Konqueror (Unix only) Open source Spin off - Safari (Apple, OSX) 24
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