170 Index. Delta networks, DENS methodology

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1 Index A ACK messages, 99 adaptive timeout algorithm, 109 format and semantics, 107 pending packets, 105 piggybacking, 107 schematic represenation, 105 source adapter, 108 ACK overhead, , 112 Active optical cables (AOCs), 70 All-optical networks ACKs, 99 architecture end-to-end reliability, 98 minimally-sized switching nodes, 98 multistage interconnection networks (MINs), time-division-multiplexing (TDM), 97 computer simulation models ACK overhead, 112 impact of retransmissions, packet delay vs. incoming load, 113 permutation traffic, delay performance, dynamic scheduling, 99 end-to-end reliable packet delivery ACK messages, ACK overhead reductions, new injections vs. retransmissions vs. standalone ACKs, retransmission timers, ingress path and egress path, 100 Omega network, optical transmission, prescheduled and speculative injections, 100 requirements, 96 speculative packet injections, switching elements, TDM prescheduled packet injections, throughput performance, 102 All-optical OFDM (AO-OFDM), 121 Application of DCN, Architecture block diagram, 3 4 fat-tree 2-Tier/3-Tier, 4 fault tolerant, 4 high power consumption, 5 limitations, 20 multiple store-and-forward processing, 5 social networking, 18 using scale-out model, using traditional scale-up approach, Arrayed waveguide grating (AWG), 138. See Cyclic arrayed waveguide grating (CAWG) Arrayed waveguide grating router (AWGR), Average packet delay performance OFF/ON = 10, 130 OFF/ON = 50, 131 B Balanced workloads (BWs), 55 Banyan network. SeeOmega network BCube, 151 Bit-transport energy (BTE), Butterfly, 37, 72, 158. See also Omega network C. Kachris et al. (eds.), Optical Interconnects for Future Data Center Networks, Optical Networks, DOI / , Springer Science+Business Media New York

2 170 Index C CAWG.SeeCyclic arrayed waveguide grating (CAWG) Cisco CRS-1 router, 151 Clock data recovery (CDR), 28 Cloud computing application, 6 DENS methodology communicational potential, 58 computing server selection, 59 load and communicational potential, 61 metric behavior, 58 queue selection, 59 energy efficiency, 49 GreenCloud simulator structure, 51 hardware components and energy models, network congestion, 57 software as a service (SaaS), 32 three-tier aggregation switches, 51 architecture, gigabit Ethernet (GE) transceivers, 49 utility computing, 333 workloads CIW, 54 communicational component, 55 computing component, 55 distribution of energy consumption, DIW, energy consumption for types of, grid computing applications, 54 Compound annual growth rate (CAGR), 7 Computationally intensive workloads (CIWs), 54 Computing servers, Cyclic arrayed waveguide grating (CAWG), D Data intensive cloud computing data centers. See Cloud computing Data-intensive workloads (DIWs), Data vortex ingression and deflection fibers, 158 multi-wavelength striped packet format, 157 petabit bufferless optical switch, 152 physical layer scalability, 160 sorting pattern, 159 switching node design, 157 topology, 158 DCell, 151 Delta networks, DENS methodology communicational potential, 58 computing server selection, 59 load and communicational potential, 61 metric behavior, 58 queue selection, 59 DFB lasers. SeeDistributed feedback (DFB) lasers Distributed feedback (DFB) lasers, dorthogonal frequency division multiple access, PSD, 121 DPillar, 151 Dynamic subcarrier allocation (DSA), 129 Dynamic voltage/frequency scaling (DVFS), 52, E Electrical arbiter (EARB), 84 Electrical I/O roadmaps, 74 Electronic switch architecture arbitration, 79 components, 78 distributed high-radix switch, head-of-line (HOL) blocking, 78 End-to-end reliability ACK messages, ACK overhead reductions, network architecture, 98 new injections vs. retransmissions vs. standalone ACKs, retransmission timers, Energy efficiency and proportionality, DCN, F Fiber cross-connect (FXC), 120, 122, 125 Fixed subcarrier allocation (FSA), 129 Frame-based switching, 141 Frame scheduling algorithm, 144 G GreenCloud simulator structure, 51 H Head-of-line (HOL) packet, 102, 107 High-performance computing (HPC), HyPaC, 151 HyperX topology. SeeButterfly

3 Index 171 J Jobs. SeeWorkloads K k-aryn-flynetworks,98 99 L Lensed-integrated surface emitting DFB laser, 23 Line card architecture, 142 M Mach Zehnder interferometer (MZI), 139 Microprocessors, 35 MIMO OFDM DCN architecture, CAWG, features control, 125 cost, 125 fast switching, 125 fine granularity switching, 124 flexible bandwidth allocation and sharing, 124 flexible modulation format and data rate, low and uniform latency, 125 MIMO switching, 124 no guard band, 125 power consumption, 125 scalable, 125 modulation formats, 126 one-tap equalization, 120 optical core router, 126 optical spectra, WDM signals, 127 parallel signal detection (PSD), 121 performance evaluation OFF/ON = 10, average packet delay, 130 OFF/ON = 50, average packet delay, 131 simulation model and traffic assumptions, subcarrier allocation algorithms, PSD receiver performance, RF spectra, OFDM signals, signal generation, ToR bypass, types, 121 wavelength and subcarrier assignments, 126 Multi-chip scheduler, Multi-core fiber (MCF) cable, 24 Multi-mode fiber (MMF), 26 Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO). See MIMO OFDM DCN Multiple wavelength-selective switches (WSS). See Fiber cross-connect (FXC) Multiplexing techniques optical link speed, 23 optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (O-OFDM), 24 space division multiplexing (SDM), 24 wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), 25 Multistage interconnection networks (MINs), Multi-tiered architecture, 136 N Network bottleneck, Networks on chip germanium-based photodetectors, 41 off-chip laser, 41 ring resonator modulators and filters, 40 silicon photonics optical modulator, 40 waveguide loss characteristics, 39 Network switches and links, 52 Network traffic characteristics applications, 5 compound annual growth rate (CAGR), 7 concurrent traffic flows, 6 link utilization, 6 packet size, 6 server datarate forecast, 7 traffic flow locality, 5 6 traffic flow size and duration, 6 O OFDM.SeeMIMO OFDM DCN Omega network, header bits and payload, mechanism, 162 switching nodes, six states, wavelength-parallel messages, Operational expenses (OPEX), 47 OPNET modeler, 128 Optical crossbar, Optical fibers, 26

4 172 Index Optical interconnects application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), 164 bandwidth and scalability distributed feedback (DFB) lasers, multiplexing, optical fibers, 26 silicon photonics, 23 vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs), 22 communication patterns, 164 data vortex architecture ingression and deflection fibers, 158 multi-wavelength striped packet format, 157 physical layer scalability, 160 sorting pattern, 159 switching node design, 157 topology, 158 energy efficiency, 163 energy proportionality, inter-rack communication bottlenecks, 163 network interface cards (NICs), 21 networks on chip germanium-based photodetectors, 41 off-chip laser, 41 ring resonator modulators and filters, 40 silicon photonics optical modulator, 40 waveguide loss characteristics, 39 Proteus, 164 SPINet (see Scalable Photonic Integrated Network (SPINet)) system level networks hybrid optical/electrical network, 38 scale out solutions, 38 timing constraints, 39 WDM transceivers, Optical networks evolution, 9 10 Optical OFDM (O-OFDM), 121 Optical shared memory supercomputer interconnect system (OSMOSIS), 152 Optical switch architecture, fabric arrayed waveguide grating (AWG), 138 arrayed waveguide grating router (AWGR), Clos-based switch fabric, 139 schematic representation, switchfabric,139 tunable wavelength converter (TWC), 139 petabit bufferless (see Petabit bufferless optical switch) Optical to electronic (OE) domain, 70 Optimal resource utilization (ORU), 129 Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDM). SeeMIMO OFDM DCN P Packet scheduler design architecture with three-stage arbitration, CM assignment logic, request filter structure, 145 Parallel ribbon fiber cable, 24 Parallel signal detection (PSD), 121, 127 Petabit bufferless optical switch architecture address management, arrayed waveguide grating (AWG), 138 arrayed waveguide grating router (AWGR), Clos-based switch fabric, 139 configuration, frame-based switching, 141 line card design, 142 schematic representation, switchfabric,139 tunable wavelength converter (TWC), 139 data vortex, 152 flatten DCN through single switch, 137 Helios and HyPaC, 151 multi-tiered architecture, 136 optical shared memory supercomputer interconnect system (OSMOSIS), 152 performance evaluation delay performance, scalability and throughput, 149 Portland, 150 racks and wiring, scalability problems, 136 scheduling algorithm frame, 144 multi-chip scheduler and inter-chip connections, packet scheduler design, problem statement, 143 server-centric, 151 timing and frame alignment, 148 TrueWay switch and Cisco CRS-1 router, 151

5 Index 173 Photonic BTE, 73 Photonic roadmaps interchip point-to-point DWDM link, 75 losses and power, 76 wavelength-specific switch, 75 Photonics role in DCN active optical cables (AOC), 70 bit transport energy (BTE), 73 dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM), electrical I/O roadmaps, 74 high-radix switches, 72 metrics, 68 modulation rates and transport lengths, 69 photonic roadmaps, static tuning power, 73 switch architecture (see Switch microarchitecture) total packet latency, 71 warehouse scale computers (WSCs), Point-to-point vs. all-optical interconncets, 10 Portland, 150 Power consumption distribution, 8 impact on environment, 8 and performance, bandwidth requirements, 8 requirements for interconnects, 8 9 Power usage effectiveness (PUE), 37 Prescheduled packet injections, Private enterprise data centers, 5 PSD. SeeParallel signal detection (PSD) R Roadmaps electrical I/O, 74 photonic interchip point-to-point DWDM link, 75 losses and power, 76 wavelength-specific switch, 75 Role of photonics in DCN active optical cables (AOC), 70 bit transport energy (BTE), 73 dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM), electrical I/O roadmaps, 74 high-radix switches, 72 metrics, 68 modulation rates and transport lengths, 69 photonic roadmaps, static tuning power, 73 switch architecture (see Switch microarchitecture) total packet latency, 71 warehouse scale computers (WSCs), S Scalable photonic integrated network (SPINet) header bits and payload, mechanism, 162 switching nodes, six states, wavelength-parallel messages, Server-centric DCN, 151 Silicon photonics, 23 Single mode fiber (SMF), 26 Software as a Service (SaaS), 32 Space division multiplexing (SDM), 24 Speculative packet injections, SPINet. SeeScalable photonic integrated network (SPINet) Standalone ACK messages, , 112 Storage-area network, 32 Switch microarchitecture arbitration, electronic switch arbitration, 79 components, 78 distributed high-radix switch, head-of-line (HOL) blocking, 78 optical crossbar, optical switch, packaging constraints, 85 radix independent resource parameters, thermal tuning of rings, T Thermal tuning of rings, Three-tier DCN aggregation switches, 51 architecture, gigabit Ethernet (GE) transceivers, 49 Time-division-multiplexing (TDM), 97 Top-of-Rack (ToR) switch, 53 Total packet latency, 71 Traffic characteristics applications, 5 compound annual growth rate (CAGR), 7 concurrent traffic flows, 6 link utilization, 6

6 174 Index Traffic characteristics (cont.) packet size, 6 server datarate forecast, 7 traffic flow locality, 5 6 traffic flow size and duration, 6 TrueWay switch, 151 Tunable wavelength converter (TWC), 139 Twisted pair, 52 U University campus data centers, 5 Utility computing, 33 V VCSELs. SeeVertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) Vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs), 22 Virtual machine (VM), 141 W Warehouse scale computers (WSCs), Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), 25 Workload intensive cloud computing data centers. SeeCloud computing Workloads CIW, 54 communicational component, 55 computing component, 55 distribution of energy consumption, DIW, energy consumption for types of, grid computing applications, 54