Contents. Acknowledgments... xi. Foreword 1... xiii Pierre FICHEUX. Foreword 2... xv Maryline CHETTO. Part 1. Introduction... 1

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1 Contents Acknowledgments... xi Foreword 1... xiii Pierre FICHEUX Foreword 2... xv Maryline CHETTO Part 1. Introduction... 1 Chapter 1. General Introduction The outburst of digital data Performance and power consumption of storage systems Memory hierarchy and storage technology Introduction to flash memory integration Scope of the book Target audience Outline of the book How to read this book Chapter 2. Flash Memories: Structure and Constraints General presentation of flash memory The different types of flash memory Operating physical principles... 16

2 vi Flash Memory Integration Simplified hierarchical architecture of a NAND flash memory chip Operations on flash memory Constraints and limitations Erase-before-write constraint Wear constraint Reliability limitation Flash memory constraint management systems: general concepts Management of erase-before-write constraint Wear leveling Reliability management Constraint management systems Conclusion Chapter 3. Evaluation of Performance and Power Consumption of Storage Systems Benchmarking storage systems based on flash memory Micro-benchmarks Macro-benchmarks I/O traces Performance and power consumption metrics of storage systems Performance metrics Power consumption metrics Performance and power consumption measurements for flash memory based storage systems Performance exploration through measurements Exploration of the power consumption of storage systems based on NAND flash memory through measurements Evaluation of performance and power consumption through simulation General concepts FlashSim NandFlashSim Other simulators and general comparison Conclusion... 52

3 Contents vii Part 2. Embedded Domain and File Systems for Flash Memory: Flash File Systems Chapter 4. Flash File Systems General presentation of FFSs Storage management and flash memory constraints Embedded constraints and scalability of FFSs Integration of FFS storage systems in computer systems: the Linux example Linux Virtual File System VFS NAND driver MTD Presentation of the most popular FFSs: JFFS2, YAFFS2 and UBIFS JFFS YAFFS UBI and UBIFS Other state-of-the-art FFSs Conclusion Chapter 5. Methodology for Performance and Power Consumption Exploration of Flash File Systems General presentation of exploration methodology Methods and tools Hardware platform A toolset for performance exploration of FFS-based systems on Linux Flashmon VFSMon and FuncMon Exploration of power consumption: Open-PEOPLE platform Conclusion Chapter 6. Performance and Power Consumption of Dedicated File Systems: Experimental Results Hardware and driver levels Performance and power consumption of basic flash operations Impact of the MTD read buffer Conclusion... 99

4 viii Flash Memory Integration 6.2. FFS level focus on JFFS Read at the FFS level Write at the FFS level Conclusion VFS level Page cache Read-ahead mechanism The write-back mechanism Conclusion Conclusion Part 3. Flash Translation Layers Chapter 7. Flash Translation Layer Introduction Basic mapping schemes Page-level mapping scheme Block-level mapping scheme Hybrid mapping scheme Complex mapping schemes Log block FTL Page-level mapping FTL FTL with partitioned flash memory Wear leveling Wear leveling based on the number of erase operations Wear leveling based on the number of write cycles Garbage collection algorithms Cache mechanisms for flash memory Conclusion Chapter 8. Methodology for the Evaluation of SSD Performance and Power Consumption Introduction Method and tools Hardware platform I/O software stack in Linux The generic block layer

5 Contents ix The I/O scheduler The device driver Context: the Cloud I/O monitoring tools for performance exploration Level 1: the hypervisor Level 2: host VFS Level 3: file system Level 4: block layer Performance and energy consumption analysis Measurement of the overall system (PDU) Measurement of the storage system (sensors) Conclusion Chapter 9. Performance and Power Consumption of SSD Based Systems: Experimental Results Introduction Impact of I/Os on performance and energy consumption A macroscopic view of performance and power consumption of storage systems Hardware/software configuration for experiments Measurement results A microscopic view of performance and power consumption of storage systems The use of micro-benchmarks Video application case study Conclusions Part 4. Emerging Non-volatile Memories Chapter 10. Emerging Non-volatile Memories Introduction NVM integration Integration as a storage system Integration as a main memory Integration in CPU caches PCM or phase-change memory Basic concepts

6 x Flash Memory Integration PCM integration PCM as a main memory PCM as a storage system Open questions MRAM or magneto-resistive memory Basic concepts MRAM integration Open questions FeRAM or ferroelectric memory Basic concepts FeRAM integration ReRAM or resistive memory Basic concepts ReRAM integration Open questions Conclusion Conclusion Bibliography Index